Glossary

A type of causal story in which no one is clearly to blame for the outcome of a situation.

The subject of the sentence performs the action.

This law outlines the guidelines for how agencies must go about the work of developing the rules needed to implement legislation or to regulate the aspect of activity over which it has been given authority.

A target population that has a high level of political power and a positive social construction.  Advantaged groups are likely to receive benefits from public policy and unlikely to experience burdens.

Bringing the topic to the active attention of policymakers.

Evidence based on personal experience.

Courts that review the decisions of the lower, district courts.  There are 13 appellate courts in the federal system staffed by 170 judges.

An appropriation is a document (bill) that gives the government legal authority to spend money on a program or activity.  In Minnesota, the state appropriates money in a two year budget cycle called a biennium, which begins on July 1 of odd-numbered years.

The process by which Congress approves spending money on policies they have authorized.

The amount a family is expected to pay for college.  Also known as the parent contribution where FAFSA determines what portion of the other 50% (of the cost of attending a college or university) is expected from the student’s family.

the primary lawyer for the state, providing legal advice to state agencies and representing the state in court cases.

The intended recipient of your communication.

This elected position oversees audits of local governments in Minnesota, which means that they review the financial statements prepared by cities and counties to make sure they are accurate and complete.

Bills that create, modify, or end a policy.

Research design that looks at data from before a policy was implemented and compares it to data from after a policy was implemented.

A legislative proposal to create, amend, or remove policy language.

Involves action by members from both major political parties.

This perspective on decision making recognizes that decision makers have cognitive limitations related to both attention and emotion.

People who work for government agencies in the executive branch.

Composed of the Vice President and the leaders of the main executive branch departments.  It serves an advisory role only and does not have the power or authority to make decisions on its own.

Help interpret the things happening around us, but they also point out who (or what) is to blame for the problem and, through this blame, affect the direction policy should take.

Leader of the U.S. Supreme Court.

A merit-based system in which most federal jobs (about 90%) require a person to have expertise in the topic and be qualified to hold the position and it also means that most federal bureaucrats hold the job regardless of the president in power and they are protected from being fired for political reasons.

A legal hearing that involves a dispute between two individuals or organizations.  Penalties for a civil trial are financial only and don’t result in a criminal conviction.

The leaders of 24 cabinet departments of Minnesota's governor’s cabinet. They are selected by the Governor and confirmed by the State Senate.

A formal group of legislators who have jurisdiction over a specific policy topic.  Committees study and debate bills, hold hearings to learn more about them, propose modifications to bills, and make a recommendation to the full chamber.

A document produced by a committee that explains the purpose of a bill and outlines the reasons the committee supports it (and, when applicable, why the minority opposes it) and how it will change existing law.

Political ideology that is liberal on economic issues but conservative on social issues.

Public policies that control who is allowed to enter a market.

Used to change rules that apply to both chambers of Congress or express the sentiments of both chambers.

A committee that includes representatives from both chambers (House and Senate) with the goal of reaching an agreement between the two versions of the bill. Any agreement reached by a conference committee must be ratified by a majority vote in both chambers.

Congressional approval of positions within the executive and judicial branch.

A verbatim record of debates and other activity that happens on the floor.  In Congress, members can insert text into the Congressional Record, which makes it look like they made a speech on the floor of the chamber even when they didn’t.

Those who believe the government should play a limited role in the economy but should play an active role in preserving traditional morals and values.

Public policies that change the rules and structures for how the government operates.

A target population that has a high level of political power but a negative social construction. Contender groups are likely to receive hidden benefits from public policy and visible, but minimal burdens.

One or more members of the legislature that formally express support for a bill by adding their name to the bill as a cosponsor.

Evaluation that focuses on identifying the balance of costs versus benefits associated with a policy to determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs.

A response to a writer’s argument.  Good argumentative writing always raises and responds to a strong counterargument.

The process of two or more streams coming together in the Multiple Streams Framework.

These trials involve a person being accused of committing a crime against society as a whole and so the case is brought by the government (via a prosecutor) against the person accused of the crime.

The list of items that are immediately about to be acted upon by governmental bodies.

A target population that has low levels of political power but a positive social construction.  Dependent groups are likely to receive some benefits, but less than might be expected given how society views the group.

A target population that has a low level of political power and a negative social construction.  Deviant groups are likely to receive few benefits and lots of burdens by public policy.

Public policies that spread the costs of a policy out among a large group of people (largely through taxes) but concentrate the benefits among certain recipients.

The first level of the federal court system, where most cases originate. There are 94 district courts staffed by 673 district court judges. These are the courts that hold trials with evidence presented and witnesses who testify.

Focuses on the policies and policy proposals that affect things within the United States rather than in foreign policy or the policies of other nation states.

The DREAM Act is a policy proposal that would protect a group of undocumented immigrants who came to the United States as children. The full name of the proposal is the Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act. It was first introduced into Congress in 2001 but it has not yet been enacted into law.

Drawings containing political commentary that relates to current events and/or politics.

Brief argument-driven essays written by newspaper-employed editorial staff about major issues.

Involves the ability of the policy that is created to meaningfully address the problem it was designed to solve.

Getting the most for the least, or achieving an objective for the lowest cost.

In Minnesota, eligibility to accept money from the Minnesota State Grant program is determined by the Minnesota Office of Higher Education by the following factors: a college or university must be located in Minnesota and offer at least one program that is vocational or academic, leads to a degree or certificate, is at least eight weeks long, and involves at least 12 academic credits (or 300 hours).

This theory argues that public policy outcomes reflect the preferences of political and economic elites and are not reflective of the needs or wants of average citizens.  Keep in mind that this is a theory designed to explain observed reality; it is not a normative argument in favor of elite control over government.

Including relevant details about the source of the information right in the text itself instead of using a footnote or a parenthetical citation.

Systematic and objective evaluation of data using quantitative and/or qualitative social scientific research techniques.

A program in which benefits are awarded to anyone who meets the criteria for the program.  If there are more people who meet the criteria for the program, the program will spend more money than originally planned.

Fairness or justice in the distribution of the policy’s costs, benefits, and risks, across population subgroups.

The fifteen major administrative units in government including Agriculture; Commerce; Defense; Education; Energy; Health and Human Services; Homeland Security; Housing and Urban Development; Justice; Labor; State; Interior; Treasury; Transportation; and Veterans Affairs.

Created in 1939 to provide the President with expert advisors.  It includes the people who work directly in the White House Office as well as those in the Office of Management and Budget, the national Economic Council, the Domestic Policy Council, the National Security Council, and other organizations.

A statement issued by a president that creates or modifies laws or the procedures of the federal government independently of congressional action.

Research design using a randomly selected experimental group and a control group to assess the impact of a particular variable (policy) on an outcome.

Rests at the far right end of the ideological continuum, advocating for complete control of public life by government.

A system in which powers are split between two or more levels of government.

Feedback refers to the way the outcomes or effects of a public policy influences the development of new policies or the revision of existing policies.

Occurs when one or more members of the Senate prolong debate on proposed legislation to delay or prevent a decision.

Published in the Federal Register as a codification of an agency’s interpretation of how to best implement a policy.  A final rule includes a section that describes the problem that the rule is addressing and identifies the specific statute that gives it authority to act.

Any type of policy that involves providing financial benefits in exchange for desired behavior.

Major, unexpected events that draw attention to a problem.

A federal application that is used to award federal loans and grants for postsecondary education.

The different types of writing that have different styles and writing conventions associated with the genre.

The institutions operating at the national (federal), state, and local level to structure social interactions within a community.

Non-partisan, independent agency that conducts policy evaluations on behalf of Congress and executive agencies.

Also known as businesses established by Congress that perform some type of public service that could theoretically be performed by a private business.

Evaluation that results in learning about how well the policy tools or implementation designs work to improve the delivery of a policy.

the chief executive for the state, responsible for administering laws, appointing the heads of state departments and agencies, appointing judges to fill vacancies, proposing a budget, reviewing bills and either signing or vetoing them and serving as commander-in-chief of the state national guard.

The GDP is a measure of economic activity that reflects the monetary value of the goods and services produced in a country within a specific year.

A theory that argues that the creation of public policy involves a struggle between different groups within society and the resulting policy reflects the interests and preferences of the winning groups.

A meeting held by a congressional committee in which they invite people to provide testimony and answer questions from committee members.

An organized set of beliefs about the proper role of government in a society.  Liberal and conservative are two of the main terms associated with ideology.

Evaluation that focuses on the overall impact of a policy, including both intended and unintended consequences.

An entire set of biases and behaviors toward a group of people of which we might not even be aware.

A type of causal story in which problems are driven by purposeful human action but with unintended consequences.

Oversee specific government operations such as elections (the Federal Election Commission) or space exploration (NASA).

Oversee specific economic activities such as the Securities and Exchange Commission or the Consumer Product Safety Commission).

Pieces of data that are used to measure the size and scope of the problem.

Allows individual citizens or groups to propose a new law and, in some cases, a constitutional amendment, which is then voted on by citizens in an election.

Demands for action that come from individuals and groups as well as the support for the system that comes when individuals and groups accept the system of government, for example by paying taxes, obeying laws, and abiding by results of elections.

An office that conducts independent audits and investigations of an agency to detect and prevent fraud and abuse.

The list of topics to which a particular government institution is paying attention at any given point in time.

Any of the bodies that are designed to formulate and implement public policy including legislatures, executives, bureaucratic agencies, and courts.

A type of causal story in which there is a clear person or group responsible for an outcome and that person or group meant for the outcome to happen.

Also known as advocacy groups, are another set of unofficial actors.  Interest groups are organizations that engage in political activity.

This type of rules do not require notice-and-comment and can be issued without public input.  Interpretive rules do not have the force of law but explain the agency’s interpretation of laws or regulations.

This term is related to news articles and involves putting the most important information toward the top of the article and details of lesser importance toward the bottom.

The closed relationship between a congressional committee or subcommittee, an executive agency, and powerful interest groups in a particular policy domain.

A very short document (1-2 pages) that is used to inform policymakers, and sometimes the public, about a particular issue.

The process of defining an issue as a problem by choosing to highlight or de-emphasize certain aspects of the issue.

A loose constellation of participants who are working to influence a particular policy area.

Similar to a bill.  Joint resolutions can be used to appropriate money for a particular purpose, requiring approval by both chambers of Congress and the president. They can also be used to propose amendments to the Constitution.

The people who write news stories.

Federal judges are nominated by the President and confirmed by a majority vote of the U.S. Senate to serve at the district and appellate levels.

The power of the U.S. Supreme Court to determine whether an action taken by the government is consistent with the U.S. Constitution.

The set of topics that a committee oversees.

Nominated by the President and confirmed by a majority vote of the U.S. Senate to serve at the Supreme Court; the leader of the Supreme Court is called the Chief Justice.

This term is related to news articles and references in the first sentences in an article that are meant to grab the readers’ attention; answers the big questions of who, what, where, when, why, and how; and details provided in an inverted pyramid style.

Congress proposes, debates, and passes (or fails to pass) bills that create and fund public policies.

Evaluation that results in learning negative and positive lessons from other venues that can be applied to different venues.

Letters written by readers of the newspaper in response to news articles or opinion pieces (editorials or op-eds).

Those who believe the government should play an active role in regulating the economy but should play a limited role in preserving traditional morals and values.

Those who believe that the government should play a limited role in regulating the economy and should also play a limited role in preserving traditional morals and values.

Protection of personal freedom.

serves as an official representative of the governor and assumes the governor’s duties in the event that the governor is absent, incapacitated, or resigns.

A standard allowance established by the Minnesota Legislature for room and board, books and supplies, and other miscellaneous expenses related to postsecondary education.

The individuals who represent the interests of a business or interest group before government actors.

Major policy changes.

A hearing in which a legislative committee or subcommittee will move line by line through the proposal, making changes, called amendments.

A two-year graduate program for people who are interested in implementing and administering public policy in the public sector.

A two-year graduate program for people who are interested in designing and evaluating public policy either in the public or private sector.

A type of causal story in which problems are unguided but have indirectly intentional consequences.

Plays an important role in the political process.  The media includes traditional news outlets like newspapers, radio, and broadcast television as well as newer forms such as cable news, the internet, and social media.

The 100 elected Senators (two from each state) serving in the U.S. Senate and 435 elected Representatives (based on population) serving in the House of Representatives.

A short message that follows a very specific format.  Memos are widely used in workplace environments, particularly in business and government.  The purpose of a memo is to communicate information clearly and concisely to a specific audience.

The technique of copying a successful strategy from one policy issue in a debate over a different policy issue.

The branch of state government responsible for proposing, debating, and passing legislation.  Like the federal system, the Minnesota legislature is bicameral (has two chambers), but there are several other important differences.

This state agency administers public policies related to postsecondary education.

The MPCC is an advocacy group that represents eighteen private colleges in Minnesota.

The process of sending a bill to more than one committee at a time for review.

The MSF is a theory developed by John Kingdon that seeks to explain why and how issues become things that policymakers pay attention to and act on. 

A rulemaking process in which the agency invites interested actors, such as interest groups representing affected interests, to shape the initial proposal.

Articles written by journalists to report information about things that happened in the world. 

People not explicitly affiliated with a political party.

A description or claim about how the world ought to be based on value judgements.

A particularly important office within the executive branch that is responsible for preparing the president’s annual budget proposal and reviewing all proposed bills and agency regulations.

Actors that have an authorized role to play in the policymaking process based on the Constitution or statute (law).

A process in which legislators bundle up a bunch of bills on the same general topic into one large bill and the Minnesota legislature does it frequently rather than passing each bill separately.

Evaluation that focuses on whether the policy has achieved its goals.

In the political system, outputs are the policies such as laws, court decisions, and bureaucratic regulations.

Congress’ power to provide checks and balances on other branches of government by holding hearings, calling officials to testify in front of Congress, and issuing written reports about government agencies.

When you get more of something than you should.

Support for a particular political party.

A list of a party’s positions on major political issues where they outline their preferred policy outcomes.

The subject of the sentence is acted upon by the verb.

This type of writing is intended to change someone’s mind about a topic or get them to act (or not act) on a topic.

An agreement between a person accused of a crime and the prosecutor in which the defendant pleads guilty in exchange for a lighter sentence.

A theory that argues that the creation of public policy involves a struggle between different groups within society and the resulting policy reflects the interests and preferences of the winning groups.

When there are less than ten days left in a current congress but the President does not sign or veto the bill, the bill does not go into effect. This is called a pocket veto because the President did not have to take proactive action to veto the bill but rather just put it in his pocket to die.

The process of formally adopting a government policy.

A forwards-looking process using data to make predictions about the effect and effectiveness of proposed public policies.

The spread of policy ideas from one government to another.

Efforts by government and other policy actors (like academics!) to find out whether the policy was effective in reaching its intended goals.

The process of designing and passing a government policy.

The way a problem is defined and portrayed to the public.

The process of actually putting the government policies that are passed into action.

The small group of the most important actors (both official and unofficial) who control policy making in a given domain.

The results or consequences of a policy. May be intended or unintended.

The actions a government agency takes or the things that a government agency produces in the process of implementing a policy.

Part of Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Framework in which different policy ideas exist independently of political problems.

The mechanisms that policymakers use to motivate people or institutions to behave in ways that satisfy the goals of public policy.

Evaluation that results in learning about changes that can be made to policy to better achieve desired goals and objectives.

The processes of designing, passing, and implementing a government policy.

Has to do with whether it is realistically possible to adopt a particular policy solution.

Evaluation that results in learning about effective strategies for advocating for a particular policy.

Organizations of likeminded people who work together to win control of government through elections and that help to structure and organize the policymaking process.

Includes things like access to financial resources, civic participation, access to power, and the ability to organize.

This theory of policymaking conceives the process as involving inputs and outputs into a political system embedded within an environment.

Part of Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Framework in which aspects of the political environment influence how issues move on or off the agenda.

Making a judicial decision so that it conforms to decisions reached in prior similar cases.

The chief executive within the U.S. federal government.  Presidents are responsible for overseeing the implementation of public policy and reviewing (by signing or vetoing) laws passed by Congress.

Short documents (usually only 1-2 pages in length) that are written to provide basic information about an event or action that is going to happen or that has already happened. (Also called media releases)

Defining a situation as something that is worthy of attention from the government.

Part of Kindgon’s Multiple Streams Framework in which conditions come to be defined as problems worthy of government attention.

Evaluation that focuses on how well a policy is administered or implemented.

Public policies that are designed to protect the public from harm.

The authoritative statements and actions of the government that reflect what governments choose to do or not to do.

This theory seeks to explain why public policy experiences long periods of stability but can also feature sudden and dramatic changes at certain points in time.

A reason for writing or a goal of communication. Common purposes include informing, summarizing, persuading, encouraging, and entertaining.

Also known as a natural experiment. Research design in which two groups are compared (but not randomly selected) to assess the impact of a particular variable (policy) on an outcome.

A rational decision is one in which the decision maker must 1) have access to and be able to understand and process all of the relevant information related to a decision, 2) be able to identify and rank their values and preferences, and 3) be able to evaluate the information in light of those preferences in order to arrive at the best possible decision.

When a chamber of Congress records the names of people who voted for and against a proposal.

Public policies that have concentrated costs and concentrated benefits, but the group that pays the costs is different from the group that gets the benefits.

A process in some states in which a state legislature passes a law but places it on the ballot for voters to either uphold or repeal.

A statement issued by a government agency, board, or commission that has the force and effect of a law passed by Congress.

Public politics that concentrate the costs among a few people but distribute the benefits widely.

This is the extent to which Congress reflects the voices and viewpoint of the people in the decision making process.

Serve in the House of Representatives from geographical districts and are elected to two year terms.

Similar to a bill but used to express ideas, set internal rules for Congress, or propose constitutional amendments. 

This approach to analyzing written texts asks us to consider the purpose and audience for our writing (and for evaluating things we read!) and reminds us that there are different genres (types of writing) all of which have a different set of conventions and expectations associated with them.

The process of creating rules and regulations by bureaucratic agencies as they work to implement laws passed by Congress.

A committee in the House of Representatives that establishes the guidelines for debating proposals in the House.

This refers to the number of people involved in a particular decision.  Those who are currently in a position of power tend to prefer to privatize the conflict, limiting the number of participants in decision making.

The people who lead each of the departments within the executive departments. They are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, but they serve at the pleasure of the President.  All of the federal cabinet-level departments are led by a Secretary with the exception of the Department of Justice, which is led by the Attorney General.

The Secretary of State is the head election official in the state, certifies official state documents like laws, and regulates businesses in Minnesota.

Refers to both objectively being safe and also subjectively feeling safe. 

Serve in the Senate and are elected to six year terms; one third of the Senate is up for election in even years. (In Minnesota, Senators are elected to four year terms.)

At each level of government (federal, state, and local), power is further split between different branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial).

Policies that provide direct services, information, or education.

Written documents that are issued when presidents sign new policies into law.  Presidents sometimes use these to call out aspects of the law that they disagree with and plan to ignore in the enforcement process.

Used to express the sentiment of one chamber.

The process of giving a problem its meaning and worth.

Evaluation that results in learning about how the social construction of a policy or problem affects how people perceive the government action.

This ideological perspective rests at the far left end of the economic continuum, emphasizing collective ownership of business.

Part of Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Framework in which actors become more comfortable with policy proposals.  This is especially common when ideas are pretty extreme on either end of the spectrum, but as they continue to bump around among policy actors, the ideas start to seem more mainstream.

The Senator or Representative who introduces a bill or resolution.

The state auditor oversees audits of local governments in Minnesota, which means that they review the financial statements prepared by cities and counties to make sure they are accurate and complete.

Involves identifying a set of common attributes for an entire group of people and then attributing those attributes to individuals who are part of that group.

The government employees who work on the front lines of providing direct services.

An expectation that a student contributes 50% towards the cost of education of a state university, which is determined by the state-set formula (tuition, fees, and living expenses).

A subsection of a committee that focuses on an even more specific aspect of the policy area.  Like committees, subcommittees can hold hearings and propose amendments.  Any decisions made by a subcommittee must be approved by the full committee.

Policymaking that is impacted by a small and stable group of official and unofficial actors.

Policies that urge, but don’t require, compliance.

Issues that are viewed by members of the political community as meriting public attention and as falling within the legitimate jurisdiction of existing government authority.

The group of people whose behavior you wish to change.

Written or spoken information that is presented to a legislative committee or subcommittee during their discussion of proposed legislation. 

Provides an outline of how a process works and calls attention to certain key aspects of the process. It is meant to explain what has happened in the past and to help us make predictions for future policymaking.

An explanation of the expected causal chain between the policy and desired outcomes that explains how the policy is supposed to work.

Research institutions that conduct and disseminate research with the goal of influencing public policy.  These are often described as universities without students.

There are multiple forms of evidence used in building arguments including: statistical evidence, research findings, testimony of experts, or even personal experience of writers.

This federal agency administered public policies related to education from pre-K to postsecondary institutions. 

The highest level of court in the federal system, staffed by 9 justices.

The Senate requires approval from all members to act, and so it operates under a series of unanimous consent agreements to conduct its business.  Unless a Senator objects, the Senate continues with its business.  A Senator who strongly objects might consider starting a filibuster.

When you get less of something than you should.

Actors that have an interest in policy outcomes and work hard to influence policy outcomes, but lack the legal standing to actually make a policy decision.

A declaration by a judge that an administrative rule is void or unenforceable.

The process of proactively seeking out a more favorable venue for political action.

Centers of policy making power.

An action taken by a President to oppose a bill passed by Congress. 

A vote taken in Congress in which members express their support or opposition to the proposal verbally without recording how individual members voted.

The general belief that society should help individuals and families when they are in dire need.

Part of Kingdon’s Multiple Streams Framework.  A brief block of time when multiple streams converge to allow policy action to occur.