4 Chapter 4: Virtue Ethics—The Role of Character in Moral Philosophy

“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.” – Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics

“To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must first put the family in order; to put the family in order, we must first cultivate our personal life; we must first set our hearts right.” – Confucius, The Great Learning

In this chapter, you’ll embark on an exploration of virtue ethics, an approach that seeks to answer the fundamental questions, “What does it mean to be a good person? And how can I become one?” Virtue ethics diverges from other moral theories by focusing on the character of the moral agent rather than the act or the consequences. This approach views virtues – traits like wisdom, courage, kindness, and justice – as central to leading a morally good life.

Our exploration begins with a captivating tale called “Unaltered Virtue,” set in the intricate city of Eudaimon. Through the journey of Prudence, a young citizen facing a defining rite of passage, you’ll delve into a world where virtues can be genetically imprinted, shedding light on the nuances and complexities of virtue ethics in action. Alongside the story, discussion questions will prompt deeper thought and reflection on these concepts.

The chapter further delves into ‘Big Ideas’, starting with Aristotelian virtue ethics. Aristotle’s profound insights into moral virtue and the concept of eudaimonia – a flourishing life – serve as the cornerstone of our understanding of this approach.

We will also venture beyond Aristotle, exploring diverse interpretations and applications of virtue ethics from different cultures and perspectives, including Confucianism with its focus on “Ren” or benevolence, Dharma-based virtue ethics from Ancient India, the African philosophy of Ubuntu, and Care Ethics, which is a feminist approach that emphasizes relationships and caring as moral virtues.

A section on contemporary debates adds another layer to the discourse, focusing on issues related to genetic engineering and moral enhancement. This engages with provocative questions about the implications of technology on our understanding and practice of virtues.

Story: Unaltered Virtue

The day was growing dim, and a luminous orange haze painted the horizon, illuminating the imposing city of Eudaimon. Nestled within valleys of metal and rivets, the sprawling metropolis was a testament to the union of human ambition and machinery, a vast labyrinth of steam-driven technologies and elaborate bronze edificacies, punctuated by the rhythmic echoes of clanking gears and whirring pistons.

This was Prudence’s realm, a labyrinth of possibility and purpose. Born of this city, she was more than just its inhabitant. She was its daughter, its testament, and soon to be, its beacon of virtuous transformation.

Her hair was a tempest of burnished copper curls, mirroring the hues of the city that birthed her. Her eyes, twin orbs of rich mahogany, shimmered with the flame of inquisitiveness, always seeking, forever questioning. There was an energy about her, a restless vitality, as though she was a gear cog forever revolving in the clockwork of her existence.

On the eve of her 18th birthday, as was tradition, she was due to choose a virtue to be genetically imprinted upon her being, a defining attribute to guide her path in the machinations of her society. The virtues were many; wisdom, courage, humility, honesty, a veritable lexicon of human strength and kindness. The process, once an outlandish concept, had now become a rite

As her eighteenth year approached, Prudence wandered the city, watching its people, contemplating the virtues that shaped their existence. She observed the enigmatic artists, blessed with creativity, their fingers stained with ink and color, as they drew forth wondrous creations from the depths of their souls. She beheld the scholars, gifted with wisdom, their minds a labyrinth of knowledge, as they explored the mysteries of the universe and unwound the puzzles of time.

Prudence stumbled upon the more peculiar and unique citizens, those who had walked unexpected roads. She came across a woman who had chosen infinite patience, now sitting by a river, eternally tranquil, awaiting the day the waters would reveal their secrets. She met a man, graced with ceaseless curiosity, whose mind thirsted constantly for new discoveries, and who had become the keeper of the city’s complex library, forever entangled in its maze of words.

However, not all who wandered the city’s twisting streets had chosen their virtues wisely, however. In the shadows of the gleaming towers, a darker world thrived, a realm of lost souls who had succumbed to the alluring allure of virtues that twisted and corrupted them. As Prudence’s eighteenth year drew near, she sought them out – a quest driven by curiosity, fueled by her desire to learn from their mistakes.

She encountered a man who had chosen ambition – unyielding, insatiable – and had soared to greatness like a comet streaking across the night. But as ambition’s fire consumed him, his heart grew cold, and his once-vibrant eyes reflected only an abyss of emptiness. He had lost all he held dear, and still, he hungered for more. In another of the city’s forgotten corners, Prudence found a woman who had sought eternal beauty. Her skin, flawless porcelain; her hair, spun gold. Yet, her pursuit had led her to a prison of vanity, where her reflection was both her captor and her only companion. Her laughter, once like the tinkling of silver bells, had faded into a hollow echo. Finally, there was the boy who had chosen the gift of absolute honesty, believing it a righteous virtue. His words became a torrent of truth, unfiltered and merciless, and he watched as relationships crumbled around him. Friendless and alone, he wandered the city’s streets, haunted by the ghosts of his own words.

The Unmodified

Prudence wandered through the marketplace, her senses awash in the sights, sounds, and smells of the city. The air was thick with the scent of spices and flowers, and the sound of laughter and music filled the air. She paused to admire a stall of bioluminescent blooms, their petals glowing like stars in the night. As she turned away, she caught sight of a small, unassuming wooden booth tucked away in an alcove. Atop the booth hung a sign, its letters etched in an elegant script: “The Unmodified.”

Prudence’s curiosity piqued, she drew closer to the booth. Behind it stood an old man, his hair a shock of silver, cascading to his shoulders, and his beard a snowy tuft. His eyes were warm and wise, and his smile was gentle.

“Hello,” he said. “My name is Areté. What can I do for you?”

“I’m Prudence,” she replied. “I was drawn to your sign. What does it mean?”

“It means that I am an unmodified human,” Areté said. “I have not chosen to have my genes modified, as is the custom in this city.”

Prudence was surprised. “Why not?” she asked.

“Because I believe that true virtue cannot be achieved through genetic engineering,” Areté said. “It must be cultivated through deliberate practice and self-reflection. I believe that each of us has a unique purpose in life, and that the only way to truly live is to discover and fulfill that purpose.”

Prudence was intrigued by Areté’s words. She had never thought about it that way before.

“Can you tell me more?” she asked.

And so Areté began to speak. He spoke of eudaimonia, the ultimate goal for humans – a flourishing life, rich in happiness and fulfillment. He spoke of phronesis, practical wisdom – the ability to discern the best course of action in a given situation. He spoke of teleology, the notion that everything in the universe has a purpose, and that the essence of a virtuous life lay in fulfilling one’s unique purpose or function.

With a glimmer in his eyes, he described the doctrine of the mean – finding the balance between excess and deficiency in one’s actions and emotions. He explained that virtues such as courage, generosity, and patience were not fixed points, but rather, lay in the equilibrium of each individual’s character.

As Prudence listened to Areté, she noticed a gentle figure approaching from behind the booth. The woman, with her long silver hair braided in an elegant style, exuded a sense of calm and grace as she joined the conversation. Areté introduced her as his wife, Lian, a devoted Confucian who, like her husband, had refused the city’s tradition of genetic virtue implantation.

Lian began by highlighting the similarities between her own beliefs and those of her husband. Both Confucianism and Aristotelian virtue ethics placed emphasis on the cultivation of virtues through a lifetime of practice and self-reflection. She explained that, in Confucian thought, virtues such as ren, or benevolence, and li, or propriety, were essential in achieving harmony within oneself and society.

The key difference, Lian noted, lay in the focus of each philosophy. While Aristotle’s virtue ethics revolved around individual flourishing and eudaimonia, Confucianism placed greater importance on the interconnectedness of individuals within society. The ultimate goal of a Confucian was to bring about social harmony through the practice of virtues and the adherence to the proper rituals and relationships.

She spoke of the Five Constant Virtues – benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and integrity – that shaped the Confucian path. These virtues were not merely qualities to be possessed, but a way of life, woven into the fabric of one’s daily existence. Lian described the importance of filial piety, the respect and devotion to one’s parents and ancestors, as well as the significance of moral exemplars – individuals who embodied the virtues and served as guiding lights for others.

As Prudence listened to Lian’s words, she found herself drawn to the idea of harmony – the delicate balance between the self and the world, the pursuit of virtues in the service of both personal and collective well-being. The girl with the starlit eyes and laughter like a forgotten melody now had two distinct paths before her, both rooted in the wisdom of ancient traditions, both promising a life of meaning and purpose.

Areté and Lian exchanged a knowing glance, seeing in Prudence’s eyes the spark of curiosity and the desire to explore alternative paths. They offered to introduce her to their circle of friends, a group known as “The Unaltered” – individuals who had chosen to remain unmodified, embracing various philosophical traditions and the lifelong pursuit of virtue.

Together, they led Prudence to a secret courtyard hidden within the city’s heart, a sanctuary where The Unaltered gathered. The place was an oasis of tranquility, bathed in the gentle glow of lanterns, with lush greenery and the soothing sound of a burbling fountain. Here, Prudence met the others, each a unique embodiment of their chosen path.

She met Ravi, a follower of Indian philosophy, who spoke of dharma, the inherent nature and moral duty of an individual. He explained the concept of karma, the belief that one’s actions determine their future, and the importance of living a life in accordance with one’s dharma, to achieve harmony and balance.

Prudence was introduced to Amara, a devotee of African Ubuntu philosophy, who emphasized the interconnectedness of humanity. “I am because we are,” she said, explaining that one’s character and virtues could only be fully realized through relationships and interactions with others. Ubuntu highlighted the importance of compassion, empathy, and respect for the collective well-being.

There was also Sol, a student of Stoicism, who believed in the cultivation of inner strength and resilience in the face of life’s challenges. He shared the Stoic principles of living in accordance with reason, practicing self-discipline, and seeking inner peace by recognizing the difference between what one could control and what one could not.

As Prudence listened to their stories, she marveled at the rich tapestry of virtue ethics from around the world, each offering a unique perspective on the journey of self-cultivation and the pursuit of a meaningful life. She felt a sense of kinship with The Unaltered, a connection born of the shared belief in the power of human potential, unbound by genetic modification.

The Argument

Prudence sat in the dimly lit room, her heart racing as she glanced at her two older sisters. Their presence, both comforting and intimidating, stirred a whirlwind of memories within her. Amelia, the eldest, had always been the pragmatic one—Prudence recalled the countless times Amelia had mediated their childhood disputes, weighing the pros and cons of each side with careful consideration. Cassia, the middle sister, was the embodiment of steadfastness, her unwavering sense of duty and moral principles guiding her actions.

As the sisters sat together, the room seemed to shrink, as if the weight of their collective history was pressing in on them. Prudence knew that she was about to embark on a journey that defied her sisters’ beliefs, and the air crackled with unspoken tension.

Amelia was the first to speak, her voice steady but laden with concern. “Prudence, your decision to remain unaltered reminds me of when we were children, and you refused to accept help with your schoolwork. You were always determined to learn and grow on your own, but sometimes, accepting help can lead to greater understanding and success.”

“My dear sisters,” Amelia continued, “I respect your beliefs and your choices, but I must share my thoughts on why I believe genetic engineering, from a utilitarian perspective, can improve our world and maximize overall well-being.”

She continued, “By genetically implanting virtues, we can create a society in which individuals possess the necessary qualities to contribute to the greater good. A person who is genetically engineered to be empathetic, for example, will be more inclined to consider the well-being of others in their actions, thereby reducing suffering and increasing happiness.”

Addressing Prudence’s newfound interest in virtue ethics, Amelia delved into her critique. “While I appreciate the focus on personal growth and self-cultivation, virtue ethics is, in many ways, a subjective and inconsistent approach to morality. What might be considered virtuous in one situation could lead to negative outcomes in another. In contrast, utilitarianism provides a clear, objective standard by which we can assess the morality of our actions: the maximization of happiness and minimization of suffering.”

Amelia went on to express her concerns about the potential pitfalls of virtue ethics. “The emphasis on character traits and individual virtues can sometimes lead to a form of moral elitism, where those who have cultivated certain virtues may believe themselves to be morally superior to others. Genetic engineering, on the other hand, provides everyone with equal access to virtues, leveling the playing field and allowing each person to contribute positively to society.”

She concluded her speech with an earnest plea. “I understand that the path of The Unaltered offers a rich tradition of self-cultivation and exploration, but I urge you both to consider the potential of genetic engineering as a powerful tool for achieving the greater good. The goal of utilitarianism is to create a world in which happiness and well-being are maximized, and genetic engineering, when applied ethically and responsibly, could be an invaluable means to that end.”

Cassia chimed in, her voice gentle yet firm. “Prudence, I too, remember when you struggled to make decisions as a child, caught between your desire for personal growth and your fear of making the wrong choice. Your choice to remain unaltered echoes that same indecisiveness. Genetic engineering, when used responsibly, can be a tool for enhancing our capacity to contribute positively to the world.”

“I appreciate the passion with which you both approach the question of ethics. While Amelia’s utilitarian viewpoint has its merits, I believe that deontological ethics provides a more solid foundation for moral action.”

Cassia continued, “Deontology is based on the premise that certain moral duties and principles are inherently right or wrong, regardless of the consequences. By adhering to these duties and principles, we are able to create a just and harmonious society, one in which individuals are respected and treated with dignity.”

Turning her attention to Prudence’s interest in virtue ethics, Cassia shared her concerns. “While the focus on personal growth and self-cultivation is admirable, virtue ethics leaves much room for subjectivity and ambiguity. Different people may interpret the virtues in different ways, and what might be considered a virtuous action in one situation could be deemed inappropriate in another. Deontological ethics, however, provides a clear and objective framework for moral decision-making, grounded in the unwavering commitment to moral principles and duties.”

Cassia then addressed the potential shortcomings of virtue ethics. “By placing such emphasis on the cultivation of individual virtues, virtue ethics may inadvertently encourage a sense of moral complacency. One might believe that, by possessing certain virtues, they are inherently good, regardless of their actions. In contrast, deontological ethics calls for an ongoing commitment to moral principles and duties, fostering a sense of responsibility and accountability for one’s actions.”

She then presented a deontological argument for genetic engineering, focusing on duties to family. “From a deontological standpoint, we have a duty to care for and support our parents, grandparents, and (yes) our sisters. Genetic engineering, when used responsibly, can provide an opportunity to uphold this duty by enhancing our capacity to contribute positively to the well-being of our loved ones. By choosing to enhance traits that allow us to more fully meet our moral principles and duties, we can create a harmonious balance between our deontological commitments and the potential benefits of genetic engineering.”

Cassia concluded her speech with a heartfelt appeal. “Prudence, I understand the allure of The Unaltered and the wisdom of ancient traditions, but I encourage you to consider the importance of moral duties and principles in guiding our actions, as well as the potential benefits of responsible genetic engineering. By embracing the duties outlined in deontological ethics and carefully selecting virtues that enhance our ability to fulfill those duties, we can create a world that is just, compassionate, and grounded in unshakable moral principles.”

As her sisters’ words echoed in the room, Prudence felt a surge of gratitude for the love and respect they shared, despite their differing beliefs. With a heart full of emotion, she prepared to offer her own defense of virtue ethics and her choice to remain unaltered. “Amelia, Cassia,” Prudence began, her starlit eyes shining with conviction, “I am deeply grateful for your insights and the care with which you’ve presented your arguments. Your perspectives have broadened my understanding, and I feel honored to call you both my sisters.”

Prudence continued, “While utilitarianism and deontological ethics provide valuable frameworks for moral decision-making, I believe that virtue ethics offers a more holistic approach to ethical living. It focuses not only on our actions but also on the cultivation of our character, which ultimately shapes the decisions we make and the way we interact with the world.”

Addressing the concerns raised by her sisters, Prudence offered a nuanced perspective. “I understand that virtue ethics can be subjective and open to interpretation, but it is precisely this flexibility that allows for personal growth and self-reflection. Virtue ethics encourages us to continually evaluate our character and strive for moral excellence, fostering a deep sense of empathy and understanding towards others.”

She then defended her choice to remain unaltered. “I have chosen to join The Unaltered not because I dismiss the potential benefits of genetic engineering, but because I believe that the journey of self-cultivation, with its trials and triumphs, holds intrinsic value. Through the pursuit of virtue, we gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and our place in the world, fostering a sense of interconnectedness and shared responsibility.”

Prudence further elaborated, “By choosing to cultivate virtues within ourselves, rather than relying on genetic engineering, we embrace the challenge of personal growth and take ownership of our moral development. In doing so, we nurture our capacity for moral discernment, allowing us to navigate the complexities of life with wisdom and compassion.”

As she concluded her speech, Prudence’s voice carried the weight of her conviction. “My dear sisters, I respect and admire your dedication to your chosen ethical paths. It is my hope that, by embracing the wisdom of virtue ethics and the challenge of self-cultivation, I can contribute to the well-being of our family and society, while honoring the beauty and richness of human potential.”

Postscript

Years had passed since that fateful night when Prudence and her sisters had engaged in their emotional debate, their words weaving a tapestry of love, conviction, and memory. The choices each sister made that day had reverberated through the tapestry of their lives, shaping not only their paths but also the lives of those around them. Prudence had remained steadfast in her decision to live a life of arete, embracing the challenge of self-cultivation and personal growth. The virtues she chose to pursue—wisdom, courage, empathy, and integrity—became the cornerstones of her character, guiding her actions and decisions with unwavering dedication.

As a mother, Prudence nurtured her children with love and understanding, teaching them the importance of moral discernment and the pursuit of excellence in all aspects of life. Her children grew up to be compassionate, wise, and resilient individuals, their own lives embodying the virtues their mother had instilled in them. Her influence extended beyond her family, touching the lives of her students, coworkers, and fellow citizens. As a teacher, she inspired her students to question, explore, and strive for moral excellence, guiding them on their journey toward self-discovery and growth. Her unwavering commitment to virtue ethics became a source of inspiration, fostering a sense of unity and shared responsibility within her community.

Discussion Questions: Unaltered Virtue

• How do the ethical theories of utilitarianism, deontological ethics, and virtue ethics differ in their approach to moral decision-making? How are these differences reflected in the perspectives of Amelia, Cassia, and Prudence?
• In what ways do the sisters’ childhood experiences and memories inform their ethical beliefs and choices as adults? How do their childhood weaknesses relate to the ethical frameworks they adopt?
• How does Prudence’s choice to remain unaltered and embrace virtue ethics affect her relationships with her family, students, and fellow citizens? Can you think of any potential drawbacks to her decision?
• What are some of the key virtues that Prudence pursues, and how do they manifest in her actions and decisions throughout the story? How do these virtues contribute to her sense of purpose and fulfillment?
• How does the story depict the balance between the sisters’ love and respect for each other and their commitment to their respective ethical beliefs? What can we learn from their relationship about navigating disagreements on moral issues?
• How does the concept of arete, or moral excellence, influence Prudence’s approach to self-cultivation and personal growth? Do you agree with her belief in the intrinsic value of this journey, or do you think genetic engineering can also play a role in moral development?
• Based on the story, what role does empathy and understanding play in the sisters’ ethical journey? How does this contribute to their capacity for moral discernment and decision-making?
• In your opinion, which ethical framework—utilitarianism, deontological ethics, or virtue ethics—resonates most with you and why? Can these theories coexist, or do they inherently conflict with one another?
• How might the story have unfolded differently if Prudence had chosen to embrace genetic engineering and alter her virtues? What implications could this have had for her relationships and her impact on others?
• What questions does the story raise about the role of personal choice, responsibility, and agency in ethical living? How does Prudence’s journey challenge or support your own beliefs about the nature of morality and personal growth?

Big Ideas: Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

Aristotle’s virtue ethics, an agent-centered theory, places individuals and their characters at the core of ethical deliberation. This approach prompts introspection, encouraging one to ask, “how should I be?” rather than simply “what should I do?” It’s a journey towards moral character rather than a singular focus on moral actions.

One of the central concepts in Aristotle’s virtue ethics is “eudaimonia“, a Greek term often translated as “flourishing” or “the good life”. Aristotle believed that all actions ultimately aim at eudaimonia, making it the ultimate goal of human life. This idea shifts the perspective from individual actions to the broader context of a person’s life. For Aristotle, leading a good life isn’t about individual good deeds but about cultivating a character that consistently leads to these deeds.

The pursuit of eudaimonia leads us to another key concept in Aristotle’s virtue ethics: the doctrine of the mean. According to this doctrine, every virtue lies between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. For instance, courage, a virtue, stands between recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). A courageous person is neither too rash nor too timid but finds a balanced approach to dealing with danger.

Consider a situation where one must decide whether to confront a bully. The reckless response might be to initiate a violent conflict, while the deficient response might be to run away or ignore the situation entirely. The courageous response, according to Aristotle, would be to find a balanced approach, perhaps standing up to the bully in a non-violent way.

Like any skill, virtues such as courage, honesty, or generosity, must be practiced to be refined. Aristotle, following Socrates and Plato, viewed virtues as central to a well-lived life. He believed ethical virtues, like justice, courage, and temperance, are complex rational, emotional, and social skills that one develops over time. The goal is not merely to act virtuously but to become a virtuous person.

Aristotle and other virtue ethicists distinguish between full or perfect virtue and “continence“, or strength of will. Fully virtuous individuals naturally act in line with their virtuous character, without struggling against contrary desires. Conversely, continent individuals must consciously control their desires or temptations to act otherwise.

For example, a fully virtuous person doesn’t struggle with the decision to give to charity; it is a natural extension of their generous character. A continent person, on the other hand, might feel an initial reluctance to part with their money but chooses to do so through strength of will. Over time, with repeated acts of generosity, this struggle may lessen as the virtue of generosity becomes more ingrained in their character.

Big ideas: Other Versions of Virtue Ethics

While Western ideas (including Judaism, Christianity, Islamic, and secular philosophies) have been strongly influenced by Aristotle, similar ideas can be found in most other traditions, including China (Confucianism), India (Dharma-based ethics), and Africa (Ubuntu). There are also a number of more recent ideas about how to “update” the general virtue ethics framework to empathize different virtues (such as that of “caring”).

Confucianism and the Virtue of “Ren”

Confucian Virtue Ethics: Confucianism, based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, emphasizes the importance of moral virtues in achieving social harmony and personal fulfillment. Confucian ethics is centered around the cultivation of virtues and the development of moral character through reflection and practice.

Relationships, particularly familial relationships, play a central role in Confucian virtue ethics. Confucius believed that the foundation of a harmonious society lies in the cultivation of virtues within the context of social roles and responsibilities. By fulfilling one’s duties within the family and society, individuals contribute to social harmony and personal growth.

Key virtues in Confucianism include benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), and wisdom (zhi). Benevolence (ren) is the virtue of compassion and empathy, which involves caring for others and treating them with respect. Righteousness (yi) refers to the sense of moral duty and the commitment to act ethically in all situations. Wisdom (zhi) is the ability to discern right from wrong and make morally sound decisions based on knowledge and experience.

Confucian virtue ethics also emphasizes the concept of the “superior person” or “junzi,” an individual who embodies the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom, and serves as a moral exemplar for others. The junzi is committed to personal growth, self-reflection, and the cultivation of virtues, ultimately contributing to the betterment of society as a whole.

Dharma-Based Virtue Ethics

Dharma-based virtue ethics is grounded in the religious and philosophical traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Central to this approach is the concept of dharma, which refers to the moral and ethical duties an individual must fulfill to maintain social harmony and personal growth. Dharma is often interpreted as the cosmic order or natural law governing the universe, and each person has a unique dharma based on their social position, stage of life, and individual circumstances.

In Hinduism, dharma is often associated with pursuing one of the Four Yogas that can shape human life:

• Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge),
• Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion),
• Karma Yoga (path of selfless action), and
• Raja Yoga (path of meditation).

By fulfilling their dharma, individuals contribute to the stability of society and their own personal development. Key virtues in Hinduism include nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), purity (shaucha), and self-control (brahmacharya).

In Buddhism, the concept of dharma is linked to the teachings of the Buddha, which provide a path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path, a central tenet of Buddhism, outlines the moral virtues and practices necessary for spiritual growth, such as right view, right intention, right speech, right action, and right mindfulness.

In Jainism, dharma refers to the ethical principles guiding one’s spiritual progress towards liberation. Central to Jain dharma are the principles of nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), chastity (brahmacharya), and non-attachment (aparigraha). Jainism emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtues and adhering to these ethical principles in order to purify the soul and achieve spiritual liberation.

Ubuntu Virtue Ethics

Ubuntu, a Bantu term that roughly translates to “humanity” or “humanness,” is a virtue ethics framework that originates from African philosophical traditions. Ubuntu emphasizes the interconnectedness of all people and the importance of community in fostering moral development.

According to Ubuntu, a person becomes a fully realized human being through their relationships with others. Moral virtues are developed through acts of compassion, empathy, and solidarity that contribute to the well-being of the community. The philosophy of Ubuntu suggests that a person’s moral worth is not determined solely by their individual actions but also by their contribution to the collective good.

Some of the key virtues in Ubuntu include compassion, empathy, respect, generosity, and reciprocity. These virtues are cultivated through interpersonal relationships and community engagement, emphasizing the importance of maintaining harmony within the community and between individuals.

Ubuntu challenges the notion of individualism, asserting that individuals are fundamentally interconnected and interdependent. It highlights the importance of collective well-being, shared responsibility, and the recognition of the humanity in others. Ubuntu virtue ethics provides a framework for understanding morality as a communal endeavor that shapes and is shaped by the relationships between individuals and their communities.

Care Ethics

Care ethics, sometimes referred to as the ethics of care, is a variety of virtue ethics that emphasizes the moral importance of relationships and the role of care in ethical decision-making. Developed primarily by feminist philosophers such as Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, care ethics seeks to address the limitations of traditional moral theories, which have often neglected the significance of emotions and interpersonal connections in shaping moral character.

At its core, care ethics focuses on the importance of caring relationships and the virtues that arise from these relationships, such as empathy, compassion, and responsiveness to the needs of others. Care ethicists argue that moral development is grounded in the context of human relationships and the cultivation of virtues that foster care and concern for others.

Key aspects of care ethics include:

• Emphasis on relationships: Care ethics asserts that moral considerations should be grounded in the context of human relationships, both personal and societal. This approach challenges the individualistic focus of many traditional moral theories and underscores the importance of social interconnectedness in moral development.
• The moral significance of emotions: Care ethics recognizes the essential role of emotions, such as empathy and compassion, in guiding ethical decision-making. By valuing emotional responsiveness, care ethics highlights the importance of understanding the experiences and perspectives of others in order to make morally sound decisions.
• The importance of care: Care ethicists argue that care is a fundamental moral value, central to human flourishing. Acts of care, both in personal relationships and in social and political contexts, are essential for promoting the well-being of individuals and communities.
• Attentiveness to particularity: Care ethics emphasizes the importance of attending to the unique needs and circumstances of individuals in ethical decision-making, rather than relying on abstract principles or rules. This focus on particularity encourages a more nuanced understanding of ethical situations and a greater sensitivity to the diverse experiences and perspectives of others.

Some key virtues associated with care ethics include empathy, compassion, attentiveness, responsiveness, and responsibility. These virtues are cultivated through caring relationships and the practice of attending to the needs and well-being of others.

Care ethics provides a distinctive approach to virtue ethics that foregrounds the importance of relationships, emotions, and care in the development of moral character and ethical decision-making. By highlighting the interconnectedness of individuals and the role of care in fostering human flourishing, care ethics offers a valuable perspective on morality and the cultivation of virtues.

Contemporary Debates: Genetic Engineering and Moral Enhancement

The prospect of genetic engineering and moral enhancement has sparked significant debate in contemporary philosophy, raising questions about the ethical implications of modifying human beings at the genetic level to promote specific moral qualities or virtues. (This idea is sometimes called the debate over moral enhancement.) Our original story, which explores the idea of genetically implanting virtues, serves as a springboard to examine various philosophical arguments and ideas surrounding this controversial issue.

• Virtue Ethics and Genetic Engineering: Virtue ethicists, who prioritize the cultivation of moral character and virtues, may argue that genetic engineering could potentially undermine the importance of personal growth and moral development. They might contend that the process of cultivating virtues requires effort, reflection, and experience, which cannot be bypassed through genetic modification. Some virtue ethicists, such as Michael Sandel, have expressed concerns that genetic engineering could lead to a loss of human dignity, authenticity, and the value of individual achievements.
• Utilitarianism and Genetic Engineering: Utilitarians, who focus on maximizing overall happiness or utility, might view genetic engineering as a tool to enhance well-being and reduce suffering. They could argue that if moral enhancement leads to individuals making more morally sound decisions, it would result in greater happiness for the greatest number of people. However, utilitarians would also consider potential negative consequences, such as the possibility of creating new inequalities or undermining personal autonomy.
• Deontology and Genetic Engineering: Deontologists, who emphasize adherence to moral rules or duties, might be concerned with the potential violation of individual autonomy and human dignity through genetic engineering. They could argue that manipulating an individual’s genetic makeup without their consent infringes upon their rights, even if it results in morally beneficial outcomes. However, some deontologists might also consider the potential benefits of genetic engineering, such as the reduction of suffering or the promotion of moral duties, as long as it is done within the boundaries of respecting individual autonomy and dignity.
• Moral Enhancement and the Role of Emotions: Philosophers like Martha Nussbaum have emphasized the role of emotions in moral decision-making and the importance of cultivating emotional intelligence. In the context of genetic engineering, proponents of moral enhancement might argue that enhancing emotional capacities, such as empathy and compassion, could lead to more morally responsive individuals. Critics, however, might argue that emotions are complex and context-dependent, and artificially enhancing them could result in unforeseen consequences or even an oversimplification of moral judgments.
• The Limits of Genetic Engineering: Some philosophers, like Julian Savulescu, have argued that genetic engineering and moral enhancement should be pursued with caution, acknowledging that there may be limits to our understanding of the human genome and the long-term implications of genetic manipulation. They emphasize the importance of continued philosophical and scientific inquiry to better understand the ethical implications of these advancements and to ensure that they are employed in ways that promote human flourishing and well-being.

The debate surrounding genetic engineering and moral enhancement touches upon various philosophical arguments and ideas, from virtue ethics to utilitarianism and deontology. Our original story serves as a starting point for exploring these complex issues and engaging with the works of contemporary philosophers who grapple with the ethical implications of genetic engineering and its potential impact on human morality and well-being.

Discussion Questions

• How does the concept of eudaimonia, or human flourishing, differ among various virtue ethics traditions, such as Aristotelian, Confucian, and Ubuntu? Which understanding of human flourishing resonates with you the most, and why?
• What role does moral education play in the development of virtues, according to virtue ethicists? How might this perspective inform contemporary debates about education policy and practices?
• In the context of virtue ethics, do you think the process of cultivating virtues can be genuinely achieved through genetic engineering? Why or why not?
• Considering the role of emotions in moral decision-making, should genetic engineering target emotional capacities such as empathy and compassion? What potential consequences or challenges might arise from such an approach?
• How do utilitarian and deontological perspectives on genetic engineering differ? Do you find one approach more compelling than the other? Explain your reasoning.
• How might the idea of moral enhancement through genetic engineering impact our understanding of personal autonomy, dignity, and authenticity? Do the potential benefits outweigh the risks?
• Compare and contrast the focus on relationships in Confucian virtue ethics with the individualistic focus of Aristotelian virtue ethics. How might these different emphases shape ethical decision-making and personal development in each tradition?
• Discuss the role of context in virtue ethics and how it affects moral decision-making. How does this compare to the approaches taken by utilitarianism and deontology?
• What are some practical implications of adopting a virtue ethics approach in contemporary society, such as in public policy, healthcare, or environmental issues?
• How might virtue ethics contribute to ongoing debates about genetic engineering and moral enhancement? Do you think virtue ethics offers valuable insights that could help guide the development and regulation of such technologies?

Glossary