Neighborhood: the very word is pleasant. Its syllables flow with deliberation and warmth, connoting a realm of peace, stability and fellowship.^[1]

For many people, such stability, peace and fellowship generate a dream worthy of a lifetime of work. Some achieve it; others only dream. But the sure signs of progress have come to all—highways, high-rises and other benefits of urban renewal and growth—segmenting the dream, shattering the stability, and forcing the reordering of priorities. One must look beyond, to a different, larger neighborhood.

Music educators have long lived in a neighborhood of peace, stability and fellowship. Educators have involved themselves with a traditional music curriculum which was mainly concerned with the last two or three hundred years of European music. They have been content with tonality, sure of voice leading, and secure in well-defined harmonization and metric rhythmic structure. But, Nketia has alerted music educators to be conscious of a “new internationalism in music.”^[2] Robert Choate has said, “Music of all periods, styles, forms and cultures belong in the curriculum. The musical repertory should be expanded to involve music of our time in its rich variety, including currently popular teen-age music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of other cultures.”^[3]

Modern society is demonstrating an increased consciousness of world community and a growing awareness of ethnic identity. Education for this kind of society makes ethnic music not only a desirable component in the curriculum but also an urgently needed one. The importance of ethnic music is generally acknowledged as a way to meet the recognized need for expanding the breadth of musical experiences in the schools.^[4]

The music educator’s neighborhood must expand beyond present boundaries. It must include that hitherto unknown giant to whom we have paid so little attention, Africa and the Third World.  From Kampala to Johannesburg, from Addis Ababa to Salisbury—the socio-cultural events of the short past and the continuing present have thrust themselves on the rest of the world. The political, economic, and artistic importance of the African continent is growing with each passing year. The Third World is making its mark, whether we are ready for it or not.

Humankind in this 20th century entered a new era to which our entire history has been a mere prelude. Most of that history took place in a world that had very little resemblance to the world we live in today.

At current growth rates, more than 75 million people are added to the human family every year. Every three years, more people are added than now live in the United States. Within six years the world will be faced with a new Europe in numbers; Asia alone is adding a new Japan every second year; Latin America, now the most rapidly growing area, is expected to add more than 350 million by the year 2000. Africa then will have surpassed Europe by 275 million.^[5]

This is not a plea to get involved with ethnic music because there is no other choice. There is much to be gained in developing an acquaintance with foreign musical expressions. Schwadron has called the past decade a period of “far-reaching thought and activity”^[6] in a search for desirable changes in music education. “Not peripheral to all this were the dynamics of socio-cultural ferment which charged music education…with philosophical refinement and curricular modification…To judge from agenda at leading conventions and the arguments raised in the general literature, it would appear that critical discussions are continuing into the ’70s.”^[7]

Perhaps the key aspect about this ferment is the growth of understanding. Anderson has said that, “Experiencing Non-Western musics forces one back to a reappraisal of what may be called the basic fundamentals of music: rhythm, scale, melody, harmony, and polyphony, timbre, and so on.”^[8] This is a paramount reason for studying other people’s music: by learning more about others, we learn most about ourselves. Seeger states that, “One of the chief benefits of a familiarity with many other musics, even if it be rather scanty, is that it leads to a better understanding… of one’s own music.”^[9] Our neighborhood may no longer be peaceful, stable, nor recognizable. But it need not be unpleasant. It may be rich with new musical fellowship.

1. The Problem

The purpose of this study is to determine the stylistic characteristics of Anuak music and its function in the society. Answers to the following questions will provide partial answers to the problem:

1. What are the racial, physical, social and cultural characteristics of the Anuak tribe?
2. How does music function in the Anuak culture?
3. What provision is made for transmitting the musical heritage?
4. What are the stylistic characteristics of vocal and instrumental music?

2. The Procedure

2.1. Orientation

The following procedures have been observed in the field study and subsequent analysis of the music and socio-cultural setting of the Anuak tribe. On-site research was carried out for a period of six weeks (from June 13, 1972 to August 3, 1972) in the Pokwo Ethiopia area. Further study was made in Addis Ababa. Following preliminary analysis of the data, a second on-site research trip was made to Pokwo. As expected, an additional year of work analyzing the tapes and securing additional data was needed in Addis Ababa.

2.1.1. Feasibility Study

The first step was to conduct a feasibility study. The problems and procedures of contacting and spending a significant amount of time with a tribal group by a Westerner was explored. The first step in preparing for extended research trips was in the form of a short excursion to an easily reached tribe. A visit to such a tribe for a period of three days was attempted in order to gain some experience in material collection methods, to gain some understanding of the implications of relating to an alien culture, and to test out data collection devices.

2.1.2. Choice of Approach

A tribal study could be done on a comparative basis, studying in depth the music of two or three neighboring cultures, or one might elect to prepare an in-depth study of one tribe only. After a review of the literature and careful analysis of the attendant problems of conducting comparative research, it was determined that the procedures best suited to accomplishing the objectives of this study would be to concentrate on one tribe only, making limited comparisons with local cultures and with the existing research of African music, notably that of the area south of the Sahara.

2.1.3. Choice of Tribe

Five specific delimiting factors were considered in choosing the culture for the study:

1. The tribe should be accessible. There should be the possibility for one to live in the area for an extended period of time and to be able to make purchases of food, care for personal needs, and be provided minimal shelter.
2. The tribe should have a body of musical expression. Contacts should be made with individuals conversant with various tribal groups, who have lived in the area for an extended period of time, and who can authoritatively recommend a group for possible study.
3. The tribe should be in an area with well-defined borders and of a known and limited size. To gain a representative sampling of the music of a particular people within a limited period of time, it would be well to find a tribe with a high degree of cohesion, if possible, providing a contrast when compared to bordering cultures.
4. The tribe should be little studied. This study should provide information that is new or at least presents a significant percentage of original data that will either confirm or dispute earlier, parallel, or comparable studies.
5. Acculturation should be minimal. For the sake of clarity and for control of as many variables as possible during analysis, the tribe studied should be one in which little change has occurred.  This implies a tribe that is fairly remote, and/or whose culture is predisposed against change.

A tribe which meets these delimiting factors is the Anuak tribe of Southwestern Ethiopia.  Further procedures will be developed with respect to this tribe.

2.2. Practical Preparations

In preparation for the study of the Anuak tribe, a variety of practical preparations were taken.

2.2.1. Initial Consultation with Authorities in the Field

Consultation with authorities in the area of ethnomusicology was necessary in order to approve the procedures which have been developed and to gain direction for study and formal and informal preparation.

2.2.2. Preliminary Excursion

In preparation for a full summer of activity, a preliminary excursion into the area was undertaken. This excursion provided the following experiences.

1. Made sure that all credentials were in order including government permission, identification cards, etc.
2. Arranged for supplies. Determined what foods were available locally and what foods had to be flown in.
3. Arranged for shelter that was in the locale and yet provided a measure of security and isolation.
4. Made careful allowances for medicinal and medical needs: malaria and TB controls, location of clinics, etc.
5. Made all other arrangements for personal and family needs such as wood for cooking, servants, wearing apparel, sanitation and water purification.
6. Made arrangements for transportation to villages: accessibility of boats and navigators.
7. Met with authorities in the area to gain some initial impressions of the people, asked about the general social makeup and relationships with outside influences; in general, determined the knowledgeability, experience, and openness of foreign experts in the area.
8. Made preliminary arrangements for informants. Got suggestions and made contacts for employment.
9. Visited some local musical events to exercise observational skills, and to apply recording and note-taking procedures.
10. Made initial visits to local villages to gain some first reactions to layout, relations with authority figures, and general impressions. Determined tribal protocol.
11. Conducted one extended interview with an authority in the area. Determined if a formalized interview technique was warranted.

2.2.3. Fulfill Identified Needs

Upon returning from the field, it was necessary to prepare to fulfill the needs identified as a result of the preliminary excursion:

1. Met with government officials for sanction and credentials.
2. Confirmed project with the Museum of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at the Haile Selassie I University.
3. Arranged for the choice, gathering, and shipment of all perishable supplies.
4. Insured availability of drug supplies and that all inoculations were administered.
5. Developed a reliable and information-yielding interview technique.
6. Gathered equipment needed in the field. Made arrangements for the use of a high-quality reel-to-reel tape recorder (Uher); purchased a large supply of 5” magnetic tapes (25 to 30); provided for a cassette tape recorder; provided a high-quality movie film camera and slide camera with extensive supplies of film; made arrangements for night filming capability.

2.3. Choosing Informants

For a study of this scope, a variety of individuals were needed, each with different skills. Experts in several fields were necessary in the elicitation of musical and verbal information, in the analysis of tribal practice and behavior, and in the further analysis and illumination of collected data, both musical and socio-cultural. The following individuals were necessary:

Informants who are conversant with the tribe and who have been in the area for an extended period of time. For developing an understanding of the tribe, its practices and qualities, it was necessary to interview at length individuals who have had the opportunity to objectively observe the tribe to be studied. The missionaries living in the area provided such information and were willing to participate in this study.

An informant who is a member of the tribe who could regularly accompany on the taping and information gathering excursions. This individual was one who was universally accepted by tribal members, including those in authority over the several villages, as well as individuals within the villages. This individual needed to have high recognizability, be respected, and yet not feared. In addition, this individual needed to understand the objectives of this study, be sympathetic to it and actively assist in providing an atmosphere of careful preparation, advance planning and permission, and minimal pressure on the individual or individuals performing.  This individual needed to have a thorough understanding of the economic expectations of the people involved. The feeling was always engendered of fair treatment, of honest representation, and of high esteem for the people and their cultural expressions. A. H. Fox Strangways comments on this need.

There are those who have the health, energy and personality, provided they have the time and the means, to go and collect material. It is hard to say which of these is the most important, but the right personality is the rarest. Without the willing cooperation of the singers and dancers, they will do little, and that willingness is only to be bought with unfeigned sympathy, inexhaustible curiosity, lively gratitude, untiring patience and a scrupulous conscience. It is easy to fake a tune till it fits a theory. It is easy to be content with a dozen specimens, and not to plough on and get the thirteenth which would have been worth them all.^[10]

Informants who are also of the tribe but who have been educated to the extent that they can communicate with ease in English. These informants were necessary for information gathering about social practices from the point of view of the Anuak. In addition, these individuals were valuable in analyzing the word content of the various songs that were recorded. This was a year-long process after returning from the field. Therefore, these individuals needed to be readily available at the investigator’s home base in Addis Ababa for weekly work of translation and discussion.  At least one, and possibly two, regular informants were necessary with other members of the tribe occasionally available for cross checking accuracy and authenticity of translations. These individuals needed to be open and sympathetic to the objectives of the elicitor, honest and thorough in their responses.

2.4. Interviewing

The organizational structure of the Human Resource Area File (HRAF) system provided a workable framework for an interview procedure to use with the missionaries and other informants in collecting observed socio-cultural information as well as musical practice. “Broadly stated, the function of HRAF is to facilitate research and comparative study in the sciences concerned with mankind, thereby promoting a general understanding of the peoples of the world, their ways of life, their problems, values and ideas. The HRAF systematically places the information at the outset where it will be sought by the investigator.”^[11] In applying the system of a combination of structured responses and yet allowing for as much information as possible, the following process was observed.

2.4.1. Open-Ended Elicitation

The informant was asked to discuss any areas of the culture of the tribe with which he was conversant and authoritative. This phase of the interview provided for a depth of material to be recorded. At times, this was very random and inapplicable to the study at hand. At other times, the procedure provided new insights and richness of detail. The elicitor asked for clarification or elaboration on points of interest.

The musical significance of information gleaned from…informants…often is not apparent until supported by other evidence…the most advisable procedure is to introduce a general subject for discussion hoping that the specific answers to questions in the mind of the ethnomusicologist may appear. Even then, these should be placed on file and reinforced by documentation from other sources.^[12]

2.4.2. Structured Elicitation

The following points of the Human Resource Area File (HRAF) outline provided structure for this portion of the interview material. Not all areas were asked of all informants. Most points were briefly discussed with music being the focal point of most discussions:

10 ORIENTATION

101 Identification of Informant

13 GEOGRAPHY

131 Location

132 Climate

133 TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

134 Soil

136 Fauna

137 Flora

14 HUMAN BIOLOGY

144 Racial Affinities

146 Nutrition

147 Physiological Data

15 BEHAVIOR PROCESSES AND PERSONALITY

152 Drives and Emotions

155 Personality Development

156 Social Personality

157 Personality Traits

16 DEMOGRAPHY

161 Population

162 Composition of Population

163 Birth Statistics

165 Mortality

166 Internal Migration

17 HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE

173 Traditional History

175 Historical Reconstruction

176 Innovation

177 Acculturation and Culture Contact

178 Socio-Cultural Trends

18 TOTAL CULTURE

182 Function

183 Norms

184 Cultural Participation

185 Cultural Goals

19 LANGUAGE

191 Speech

192 Vocabulary

197 Linguistic Identification

198 Special Languages (music)

24 AGRICULTURE

241 Tillage

242 Agricultural Science

243 Cereal Agriculture

25 FOOD PROCESSING

251 Preservation and Storage of Food

252 Food Preparation

26 FOOD CONSUMPTION

261 Gratification and Control of Hunger

262 Diet

27 DRINK, DRUGS AND INDULGENCE

273 Alcoholic Beverages

275 Drinking Establishments

277 Tobacco

29 CLOTHING

291 Normal Garb

292 Special Garments

293 Paraphernalia

30 ADORNMENT

301 Ornament

304 Mutilation

36 SETTLEMENTS

361 Settlement Patterns

362 Housing

42 PROPERTY

421 Property System

426 Borrowing and Lending

429 Administration

46 LABOR

461 Labor and Leisure

462 Division of Labor by Sex

463 Occupational Specialization (musician)

51 LIVING STANDARDS AND ROUTINES

511 Standard of Living

512 Daily Routine

517 Leisure Time Activities

52 RECREATION

521 Conversation

522 Humor

524 Games

527 Rest Days and Holidays

53 FINE ARTS

533 Music (Extended Coverage)

534 Musical Instruments (Extended Coverage)

535 Dancing

55 INDIVIDUATION AND MOBILITY

551 Personal Names

552 Naming of Animals and Things

553 Naming

554 Status, Role and Prestige

556 Accumulation of Wealth

56 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

561 Age Stratification

57 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

571 Social Relationships and Groups

578 Ingroup Antagonisms

579 Brawls, Riots and Banditry

58 MARRIAGE

581 Basis of Marriage

583 Mode of Marriage

586 Termination of Marriage

59 FAMILY

593 Family Relationships

60 KINSHIP

602 Kin Relationships

62 COMMUNITY

621 Community Structure

622 Headman

623 Councils

624 Local Officials

626 Social Control

628 Inter-Community Relations

63 TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION

632 Towns

65 GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES

651 Taxation and Public Income

66 POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

661 Exploitation

67 LAW

673 Wrongs

72 WAR

721 Instigation of War

726 Warfare

727 Aftermath of Combat

73 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

731 Disasters

735 Poverty

736 Dependency

75 SICKNESS

754 Sorcery

758 Medical Care

76 DEATH

765 Mourning

77 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

771 General Character of Religion

773 Mythology

774 Animism

776 Spirits and Gods

778 Sacred Objects and Places

78 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

781 Religious Experience

784 Avoidance and Taboo

788 Ritual

80 NUMBERS AND MEASURES

805 Ordering of Time

85 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

854 Infant Care

855 Child Care

856 Development and Maturation

857 Childhood Activities

858 Status of Children

86 SOCIALIZATION

866 Independence Training

867 Transmission of Cultural Norms

868 Transmission of Skills

869 Transmission of Beliefs

87 EDUCATION

871 Educational System

875 Teachers

876 Educational Theory and Methods

88 ADOLESCENCE, ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE

881 Puberty and Initiation

882 Status of Adolescents

883 Adolescent Activities

884 Majority

885 Adulthood

887 Activities of the Aged

888 Status and Treatment of the Aged

2.5. Recording and Collecting

Specific procedures were followed in dealing with the variety of recording situations that were encountered. Some adjustments were made because of differing occasions or locations. The following procedures, however, remained constant to as high a degree as possible:

Every attempt was made to gain as wide a cross section of music as possible. Individuals conversant with the various styles and idioms of singing were contacted. One of the functions of the chief informant was to acquire the services of the song leaders and the known soloists of the various villages. They were contacted in advance so that work could progress consistently and fruitfully.

2.5.1. Vocal Music Procedures

2.5.1.1. Individual Performance

1. The location chosen for recording was natural, comfortable, and as close to regular singing practice as possible.
2. All recording equipment was in full view and the individual was given time to get used to seeing the microphone and to get acquainted with various hand and verbal cues for stopping the tape or for restarting a song.
3. When ready, the performer began and sang the selections he desired. All song leaders and singers sang the types of songs they were capable of singing and/or liked to sing. The standard procedure was to accept what was offered.
4. Field notes accompanied all recording sessions. Grouping of the songs into preliminary categories was based on the judgment of the informant at the scene and these categories were duly noted in the field notes. The categories, therefore, derived from the material itself rather than being imposed before the material was heard.
5. Singing continued until the individual tired or the tape needed changing. At these points, the tape was replayed for the performer. This procedure allowed for rest breaks and for the singer to enjoy the experience. This time was utilized by allowing time to question the singer or the informant as to the origin, age, genre, or other features of the song.
6. Key performers were asked their names, ages, and home village.
7. If the singer was also a composer, he was asked about his methods and reasons for composition and how he presented a song to the villagers.
8. All aspects of the performance including antiphonal singing, special accompaniment, modeling, or mannerisms were noted in the field reports.
9. All performers were paid with the amount determined on the advice of the informant.
10. Photos of all individual performers were taken noting particular singing stance, instrument technique, mike placement, and general setting. Further photographic procedures will be detailed later in this section.

2.5.1.2. Group Performance

1. Arrangements were made several days to one week in advance before entering a village for a group performance. These arrangements included meeting with the elders or the chief of the village to gain permission to return and to bring equipment. At no time was equipment brought into an area or any recording begun without the expressed permission of the authority figures.
2. Upon arrival, the chief, or the one in charge, was again contacted so that our arrival was known. Upon his cue, preparation for recording was made. Care was taken to set microphone placement and other details for optimum sound reproduction and ideal photographic conditions.
3. The villagers were summoned and the performance was recorded. Care was taken to describe by slide, film, tape, and written comment, as complete a description as possible of the village performance. Attention was paid to a description of the general area, seating patterns, identification of key performers by function and skill, patterning by children, imitation of and by adults, and any other aspects deemed relevant.
4. As in the case with individual performance, the villagers were allowed to perform what they wished with no coercion applied or suggestions made. Categories of songs were derived from the performance rather than being imposed before the material was heard.
5. At the conclusion of the performance or at intervals, the recording was played back for the villagers (partial playback). During this time, minimal information was gathered about the leading performers and about the characteristics of the performance.

2.5.1.3. Children’s Songs and Dances

Recordings were made of children singing and simultaneously playing the games to which the songs were related. Film and descriptive notes were made of each separate game sequence including the word content of the songs and the activity of the game.

2.5.1.4. Religious Music

Each occasion was described as to style of singing, the qualities of the leader and the audience, the instruments used, and the techniques used for performance.

2.5.2. Instrumental Music Procedures

2.5.2.1. General Procedures

1. A very similar approach to the vocal recording was planned for the recording of instrumental music. The performer was free to play what songs he had prepared until he wished to rest. The tape then was replayed for his enjoyment and comment. During playback, the performer or the informant was questioned as to the origin, age, genre, and other features of the song being heard.
2. During performance, photos and movie film were taken of the setting, method of holding the instrument, position of the hands and body. If the instrument was also used while walking or standing, this was observed and noted.
3. The performer was recorded in as natural a setting as possible. If the desired setting was on cowskin mats, under a tree with the listeners sitting around, commenting, listening, or singing at times, this was the desired recording situation rather than any kind of studio atmosphere.
4. Instruments employed were measured and photographed from all angles with a measuring device in the photo to provide accuracy and perspective. Construction, materials, and age were described. Specific playing and tuning techniques were observed, demonstrated, and recorded.
5. The performer was asked about his playing background and training.

2.5.2.2. Recording of Membranophones

To ascertain the sounds of the basic and dominant drum patterns used, the following procedures were employed:

1. The drum beats were performed and recorded with all performers involved.
2. Each of the drums was played separately and recorded, either heard individually, or with the mike placed so that one drum dominated in turn, with the others in the background.
3. The drum patterns were recombined.

On occasion, if special skills were noted, those individuals were asked to display these skills to show the variety possible within the genre. When drums were used in combination the procedure called for combined, separate, and recombined performance as indicated above. This procedure follows the suggestion of Professor Jones:

There is…an important use of disc and tape which has so far been little exploited: this is the making of analytical records. It would be illuminating if, before hearing the ensemble, we could hear on the record the rhythm of each contributor played separately. There is nothing difficult about this. All that is required is to ask each party to perform alone. It would often be better still if while the whole ensemble was playing, the recording engineer held his microphone near each contributor in turn. We should thus hear clearly on the record the sound of each contributing element set against the faint background of the whole part of players. Having thus recorded the elements separately, the recorder should now proceed to the next step, which is to build up the ensemble player by player. If recordings were made on these lines, the listener would gain a very much more intelligent appreciation of what is happening than he can extract from a conventional recording; such recordings are virtually nonexistent…. It would be a great step forward in the scientific approach to African music if those who made records for research purposes…. would take the trouble to carry out this simple procedure. It is very thwarting to an analyst listening to a record to have to say to himself: “If only I could hear these rhythms played separately, I should know just what is being done.” In fact, were this procedure adopted, it might be possible to produce fairly good transcriptions of simple music from records.^[13]

Careful attention was paid to achieve accurate recordings. Microphone placement was such so as to achieve a balance of all participants to as great a degree as possible in a natural setting. All drumming activity was documented on film and in written comment. Some slow-motion technique was applied in filming.

All instruments were measured for size, height, width of top and bottom, type of wood, inner and outer construction, where made, by whom, and age. A report on each participant was made as to name and approximate age, training, and a value judgment was gained regarding the quality of playing from informants on the scene and from informants later listening to the performance as recorded.

2.5.2.3. Recording of Chordophones and Aerophones

Each instrument was carefully recorded observing the balance between voice and instrument, clarity of sound, and clearness of tone quality. The procedures outlined above were scrupulously followed. Written and taped recordings were made of pitch and tuning.

2.5.3. Technical Information

All sound recordings were made with a high-quality tape recorder (Uher) using Scotch Brand tape #150, 1.0 Mil or Philips Brand DP13 tape at a speed of 7 ½ ips. One hand-held microphone was used with no more than two assistants employed. The tape recorder was battery powered. Care was taken for fluctuation in recording speed by regularly changing batteries and by striking a tuning bar at the start of a tape and occasionally during a tape. Interview material was recorded on cassette tape. Films were taken with a Bell and Howell Super-Eight hand-held silent camera. The camera has zoom and slow-motion capability. Color slides were taken with an Ashai Pentax 35mm camera. All photos were identified with stops, distance, date, and location.

All movie film was edited in sequential order according to date of performance. No material was edited out. All slides were labeled and grouped according to date of picture. The investigator’s field notes were written on the day of the experience.

It can be argued that detailed documentation is of secondary importance in circumstances in which the need for quick collecting and recording is as urgent as it has become in many parts of Africa. Many a collector has persuaded himself that, once the sound track is secure on disc or tape, there surely will be time later to study the material. At this, curators of archives or recordings will remember the blank pages in their documentation files and bow their heads in silent distress.^[14]

2.6. Organization of Results

2.6.1. Song Subject Content Analysis

Upon return from the field, the practice of translation and interpretation of song content proceeded. One, two, or several informants were involved in listening to and analyzing the recorded tapes. The procedure was as follows:

1. The entire song or section of the song was played in order to determine the song’s general idea and genre.
2. The song was again begun and after two or three seconds of listening, the tape was stopped and the informant(s) gave the general idea of the word content.
3. This pattern continued throughout the song.
4. When the informant was reminded of some aspect of Anuak behavior, folklore, tradition, or other relevant information, this information was noted. Such elaboration was encouraged. Care was taken to keep the actual song text and further information separate.
5. Where segments of the tapes were unclear to the investigator, the informant was asked to elaborate on the meaning of the idiom or the practice.
6. If more than one version of the same song had been recorded, the informant was asked to translate each version. In so doing, new meaning was discerned. This procedure also provided a check on the accuracy of the translation.
7. Several selections were translated by more than one informant so that comparisons could be made as to similarities and differences in translation.
8. Exact word-for-word translations were not attempted except for several representative selections. In these cases, a close correspondence between Anuak and English is shown.

2.6.2. Further Socio-Cultural Analysis

Further analysis of the music and of the culture was pursued by careful study and analysis of the field notes, from information gained from observations and interviews made while in the area, as well as from any relevant writings about the tribe and surrounding cultures. These information sources yielded material that was organized according to the Human Resource Area File procedure.

2.6.3. Technical-Structural Analysis

Analysis of the music followed a procedure patterned after analytical models described by Nketia,^[15] Ekwueme and Nettl. Nketia’s model incorporates concepts of sound, structure, and context, and provides a broad step-by-step approach to analysis.  Ekwueme^[16] and Nettl^[17] suggest procedures that include a general discussion about setting, performance practice, and use of instruments.  Specific points included analysis of melodic shape, range, interval employment, scale, and form. Uses for the song were described, words were translated, and representative pieces were notated and form diagrammed.

Ten songs from each culturally-derived genre were selected and analyzed. Selection of songs for analysis was initially determined randomly with choices refined by considering the documentation available and textural interest.

Instruments were discussed by organological category, presenting a description of an instrument or group of instruments, distribution, history, performance practice, playing techniques, and the essential physical features of the particular specimen described.

Each song was analyzed as follows:

1. The Song in its Setting (according to genre)
   1. Identification by number
   2. Identification by place of recording
   3. Identification by date of recording
   4. Identification by date of transcript
   5. Source of song (if known)
   6. Performers identified with mode of performance indicated
   7. Informant(s) involved in the verbal translation
2. Characteristics of the Song
   1. Translation of the text (all texts were translated)
   2. Melodic analysis. Representative pieces were notated and studied to determine general characteristics and theoretical foundations.
      1. Shape. Direction of movement.
      2. Range. From lowest to highest sung tones in the recording.
      3. Interval employment. A count was made of all intervals contained in the song.
      4. Scale, mode, and tonality. Scale patterns were constructed, mode and tonality were deduced.
      5. Timbre, texture, and intensity were described.
   3. Harmony. Triadic harmony, harmony from imitation, overlapping or doubling, and other aspects were described.
   4. Rhythm. Metric pulse patterns were determined as were tempo indications if possible.
   5. Form. The formal structure of each song was described. In the case of notated call and response selections, these were graphically represented.
   6. Employment of instruments. If used, instruments were identified. Playing techniques and styles were described.
3. Summary: At the end of each genre discussion, summary statements were made about texts, melody, harmony, rhythm, form and instrumental employment. At the conclusion of the chapter, summary statements were made about the entire body of Anuak music with comparisons and contrasts drawn with the music of other parts of Africa.

Analysis involved the use of a keyboard, the human ear, and a tape recorder. Sachs states:

A reliable ear is indispensable during the second phase: when the ethnomusicologist sits down at home, studies the yield of his field work, and makes it accessible to readers who have not heard the originals. While the machine plays back the recorded pieces, he eagerly tries to catch the tonal picture. We find it a tremendous help to turn back the pick-up as often as necessary and repeat the piece or an elusive phrase until we are ready to transcribe it into our western notation and thus enjoy the benefit of leisurely study as well as of careful control.^[18]

Selected songs were chosen from the recorded material for such analysis. Selections were based on the investigator’s evaluative judgment of quality of sound reproduction and authenticity and vitality of performance. No attempt was made to be exhaustive. Every attempt was made to be representative.

3. Need for the Study

As various countries of the world have been drawn closer through travel and communication, the often-espoused slogan, ‘music, a universal language,’ has come under increasing attack. It now seems clear to many people that unless one has some knowledge of how foreign musics are constructed, there can be little hope for understanding them. Our musical outlook in Europe and the United States must undergo some change.^[19]

Anderson’s directive grows more urgent year by year. The world has become much smaller; nearly every remote corner of the globe is within a few hours by jet. The Third World has emerged into the 20th century. An understanding of its people, their culture, and their values is necessary to an orderly conduct of world affairs in this age.

To begin to understand a country’s people, it is necessary to study their political system, religions, education, and art. One needs to search for, examine, and develop an appreciation for the diversity that is Africa. Schools must respond to this diversity by seeking to develop understanding that comes with knowledge. A recent introduction to the Harvard Graduate School of Education Association Bulletin focuses on this need.

How responsive is a school system to the needs of its constituencies? Are the schools flexible enough to develop, or at least to accept, children of differing cultural heritages, or are those children forced to mold themselves to the mores of the dominant society? How efficiently does a school system, even in a homogeneous society, fulfill the requirements imposed upon it? These are questions being posed frequently now by educators, sociologists, and psychologists all over the world.^[20]

Recently there has been a growing interest in exploring the ethnic folk music of various countries and presenting it accurately and authentically. Children have had extensive opportunity to learn folk songs of Hungary, Greece, Israel, and Egypt. But African music is still perceived in stereotypes and is relatively unknown in its authentic forms. As far as music is concerned, it is still the dark continent.

In Ethnomusicology and Folk Music: An International Bibliography of Dissertations and Theses, compiled by Frank Gillis and Alan Merriam, of the 873 M.A. and Ph.D. theses listed, no more than twenty refer and relate to the music of Africa.  Only two studies refer to East Africa and only one refers to Ethiopia and that one pertains to the music of the Coptic church.^[21] Merriam states, “…our present knowledge of African music is far from extensive and…considerable research remains to be carried out even on the most elementary levels.”^[22] Nettl has recently written, “…the world of African music is still largely unknown to scholars, and…generalizations can be made only with great caution.”^[23]

Nketia seems encouraged by recent publications but points up the need for greater study: “…recordings and publications now available…provide a small but growing body of data of African music to inspire one with the hope of adequate coverage in the not-too-distant future which will lead to a better grasp of both the principles of this music and what the music itself means to those who make it.”^[24]

Harold Spivacke, former Chief, Music Division, Library of Congress, concurs with Thieme in observing,

…the gaps in our knowledge about African music are still enormous; in fact, it is almost discouraging to contemplate them. On the other hand, it would take decades, if not centuries, for Europeans and Americans to undertake expeditions to Africa to study thoroughly the music of this vast continent. A few capable African scholars are already deeply involved in the systematic study of their own music. African scholarly research in indigenous music, and the training and preparation of African musicologists for such research should receive further support. We should therefore devote our efforts to encouraging scholars of all nations to study and describe this music with the care and detail which it deserves. The result can only lead to better cultural understanding and communication.^[25]

Anthropologists have frequently described in great detail virtually all facets of life and practice and yet ignored or only mentioned in passing those aspects of music that may be present.

One has only to study the streams of regular publications which are issued…to realize what a vast quantity of solid research, what lifetimes of unselfish service, what devotion and kindness, have been lavished upon Africa and Africans. I have continually been astonished to find how small a proportion of this work has been directed towards the study of African recreation. In all the complexity which goes to make up modern Africa, so consistently described in our journals and elsewhere, one sometimes wonders how it could be possible for any facet of any subject connected with that continent to have remained relatively neglected.^[26]

Certain authorities have specified needs for study: Buchner senses a need for the study of musical forms and styles.^[27] Merriam comments on “problems…upon which virtually no information is available, including the role and status of the musician, the social levels from which musicians are drawn, the attitudes of the society toward the musician and his attitudes toward others, the training process of the musician, and the ownership of music.”^[28]

A great many more studies in depth are needed before we can say that African music is amply covered in the literature. Regarding coverage on a tribe-by-tribe basis, the best one can say is that the picture is spotty… In short, a specialist looking for a specific tribe to study should have little trouble finding one.^[29]

Coupled with the basic lack of information about African music is a specific lack of information of the music of Ethiopia and especially the music of peoples not of the highlands. In articles and bibliographies prepared by Darius Thieme, he consistently speaks to the need for study of Ethiopian music.

There are large areas of the musical map which are virtually uncharted. To name but a few: Southwest Africa, Mozambique…, and Ethiopia come first to mind. For some of the more populous tribes we have a handful of articles, but not really enough studies in depth so that we can fully comprehend the musical style and the role of music in the culture.^[30]

Powne summarizes Ullendorff, Tracey and Jones in the introduction to his book on Ethiopian music.

A. M. Jones has published a map of Africa showing the distribution patterns of typical tribal harmonic usages in the continent. This shows which tribes and areas are characterized by the predominant use of the 4ths, 3rds, etc., in their harmonizations. Ethiopia is conspicuous by being a large blank space, the only blank space on the map. Hugh Tracey told me in 1961 that of his 14,000 separate tape-recorded items of African music, not one came from Ethiopia, but he had recordings from nearly every other corner of Africa.^[31]

Ethiopian music and hymnography still await examination and study. Apart from a few preliminary treatises and some pieces of scattered and often inaccessible information, the entire field is virgin soil.^[32]

When one seeks for information about the focus of this study, the sources become even more scarce. Powne’s book does not touch on the area.

The eastern plateau is inhabited mainly by Somali and Galla people. It is on the central and northern plateau that we find the people usually thought of as the true Abyssinians or Ethiopians—the people with whose music this book is primarily concerned.^[33] The music of other regions of the country is, in general, outside the scope of this book.^[34]

Buxton states:

In the course of rather more than three years 1942–45, I had occasion to travel through most of the country. The western provinces of Gojjam, Wallega, and Illubabor were, however, one large area never touched by my wanderings, and I found no opportunity to visit the southern provinces of Bale and Gamu-Gofa, neither of which could be reached by motor-road.^[35]

Perham sums up the difficulty of contact with these peoples and the dearth of material regarding them.

…there is a great lack of authoritative information about most of these Negro tribes. Very few Europeans have visited them in parts away from the few routes of communication and scientific ethnological information is almost wholly lacking. Consuls appointed from the Sudan and stationed at Maji, Gore, and Gambela, have written reports which lie in the archives at Khartoum, but these are not for publication.^[36]

A third need for the study emerges from the focus of historical research, to preserve that which may be lost. Ethiopia and the Sudan are going through a very unsettled period. The effects of government change, the efforts to extend the highland culture throughout the empire, the building of all-weather roads, the effects of acculturation through contact and radio, and other modern technological forces render the traditions and music of a small tribe vulnerable to change, either gradual or sudden.

As early as 1936, Varley indicated his concern.

There is hardly any branch of ethnology where so much remains to be done, and where the opportunities for research are so rapidly vanishing beyond recall, as the study of comparative music. Sir H. H. Johnston believed that ‘Music is one of the many arts in which the Negro has degenerated since the coming of the white man’…what is most needed at the moment, perhaps, is a dispassionate survey of the evidence that exists, good, bad, and indifferent….^[37]

Merriam describes this need as the “duty of preservation concept” which “has to do with the oft expressed fear that the music of the folk is fast disappearing and that it must be recorded and studied before it is gone. Erich M. von Hornbostel wrote to the same point as early as 1905 and in his first full-fledged editorial in the ‘African Music Society Newsletter,’ Huge Tracey commented on the problem of ‘…working against time in studying the receding natural art forms of (Africa’s) people,’ a theme which he has since consistently followed.”^[38] Merriam obviously considers the preservation concept a legitimate one.

Other writers cite specific agents that attack the indigenous music of a tribe. McGinty speaks of nationalism: “Nationalism in Africa has not yet expressed itself in a love to preserve the vast folk heritage of music. It will come eventually, but where the changes are so rapid it can easily come too late…. Westernization of African music represents a great loss of the rich cultural tradition which is never to be regained.”^[39]

Ullendorff speaks of other Westernization processes: “But time is pressing, for the day will come when jazz and rock ‘n roll present a serious challenge to the survival of traditional musical forms in Ethiopia.”^[40] Rhodes elaborates, “African music is in a state of flux. Detribalization, urbanization and improved communication through the medium of the press, radio and sound film have accelerated changes that have grown to seemingly uncontrollable dimensions and in an irreversible direction. Repeated alarms have been voiced warning of the danger of the African losing his most precious heritage, his indigenous culture, and with it his music.”^[41]

The forces indicated by these writers were observed at work among the Anuak tribe. Further elaboration on the effects of cross-cultural contacts, radio, and nationalism will be made later in this paper.

A fourth rationale for this study is the desire to show in present Anuak practices the relationships of music and the culture from which it springs. Scholars have often in the past been satisfied to extract the musical material and analyze it with little or no consideration for the interaction of event and composition, of occasion and dance, of reason and result.

Unfortunately, the chief concern of the investigator has frequently been solely to record the audible musical sound without reference to its ethnographic background and, too often, without any frame of reference whatsoever. We may distinguish the recording itself as primary in the sense that it preserves a record of music activity valuable as basic documentation. A second level of activity concerns the transcription and analysis of this material in the laboratory, resulting in technical description of music style; at present, far too few such descriptions exist. A third level includes both the preceding but adds the relationship of music to culture. While the first level alone has a certain utility, even when combined with the second, it cannot give a total picture of the musical activity of a group of people. It is only by dealing with music as an aspect of culture that truly penetrating studies can be made; although the collector of music serves a purpose, the full rewards in the study of music lie in the depth analysis of musical patterns in culture…our understanding of African music in relationship to African culture is almost nonexistent.^[42]

Often it has been said that the music of Africa permeates virtually every activity, that music is functional, that it finds outlet in every occasion from birth to death. “Music in Africa is a well-integrated phenomenon—in many ways permeating a broad spectrum of daily activities.”^[43] More specifically, music can illuminate the myriad activities of a culture as well as the reverse. “An understanding of African economy, social life, religion, education and political activity will throw light upon the music just as the music will often illuminate and explain activities in their fields.”^[44] “The study of music can also yield information on problems of cultural patterning, diffusion, and acculturation, while, finally the entire study of cultural values as expressed in connection with music remains obscure for Africa.”^[45]

“All of the kinds of music that reside within a culture are worthy of study and are important for an understanding of the culture.”^[46] “…study of music in itself is worthwhile.”^[47] “Music is a universal human phenomenon and as such it deserves study in its own right. The ultimate interest of man is man himself, and thus music, produced and nurtured by man, is part of what he does and part of what he studies about himself.”^[48]

The study of music has value in itself because music has value in itself. For this reason, music can be justified for inclusion in our school curriculum and for this reason, there is a need for the music of each culture to receive some attention.

Educators are becoming more and more aware of the obligation they have, not only to present a traditional music curriculum, but to expand to provide the student with an overview of the music of the world. “Basic music studies must be considered a segment of world culture and can no longer be provincial, devoted only to classical music of the Western world, for this music represents a relatively small segment of time in a relatively small geographical section of the globe.”^[49] Within the context of the comprehensive musician, Standifer states, “This new breed of music educator, because of this emerging awareness, will be cognizant of world musics and of the need for their inclusion in music curricula.”^[50]

The final statement of need is, therefore, an aesthetic and applicable one. One wishes to study each type of music for its own sake, and to pass on this material through a program of music education that is broad enough to encompass all expressions of musical styles from any and all cultures.

4. Related Literature

A survey of related literature dealing with the Anuak tribe reveals a limited amount of material. References to the Anuaks by travelers, anthropologists, and others can be quickly summarized and studies of their music appear to be nonexistent.

A substantial body of literature exists about the social, cultural, and political activity of the Ethiopian. But again, any references to the music of the people are limited to brief comments, passing observations, and where music is mentioned, on the music of the church, with emphasis on the music of the dominant cultural group, the Amhara.

Therefore, one must go beyond the material about the Anuak tribe; one must go beyond those materials written about the music of the Ethiopian; one must study the growing body of material being written by authorities on various facets of African music. Until recently, this area has been dominated by Europeans and American writers. Presently, the writings of several Africans are providing a new direction, making relevant interpretation, and providing tools for further research. Their work is supplying data and insights that appear to have a stamp of genuine authority.

4.1. The Techniques of Ethnomusicology

The purpose of this study is to analyze the music of the Anuak tribe within the context of its society and culture. This is a common approach today. The procedures of various authorities do not follow any one system, but they do emphasize the importance of a contextual technique. One of the most cogent discussions on how such a study may be pursued is presented by Nketia in his discussion of synchronic studies.

In synchronic studies, attention should be paid to the processes that shape and define music in culture. Regarding music as an event occurring in varying context of situation, the instigator proceeds to analyze such event and the components of its context from the point of view of the immediate situation as observed by him and the situation in a general context of culture.

In the first instance he studies the event in respect to (1) the participants—musicians, dancers and others, (2) relevant actions such as dance movements and other action occurring simultaneously with the music, (3) relevant objects such as musical instruments, sound producing objects such as dancers’ idiophonic adornment, a pan, a kerosene tin, a box or packing case, etc., not regularly regarded as ‘instrument’ in the culture or outside the dance situation, (4) the music considered in terms of 1-3 and in terms of established categories of musicological analysis, including, of course, the analysis of song texts.

In the second instance he studies musical events in respect to (5) the body of culturally-defined usages that govern them. This will include the examination of different occasions of performance and the values in terms of which they take place, (6) the relationship of musical events with other aspects of culture, and (7) factors which affect the course of musical practice such as culture contact or social change.

Any aspects of the musical event—the music, the performers, the dance, etc., –may be isolated for detailed examination. One could even deal in detail with an aspect of these items such as rhythm or tonal organization according to the problem one is interested in investigating. If such studies however, are to contribute to our understanding of “music in culture,” they must be contextualized: they must be related to the larger whole from which they are abstracted and to other elements with which they are more closely related. Analysis must go hand in hand with synthesis for it is the relations in synthesis that enhance our understanding.^[51]

Blacking, in his classic study, Venda Children’s Songs, is very successful in illuminating the music of these children. Though one would hope for other socio-cultural applications, he is, nevertheless, convincing in his approach and thorough in his treatment of this well-defined sample.

This study sets out to provide both documentary record of most of the traditional children’s songs of the Venda of the Northern Transvaal, and an analysis of their music which relates its structure to their cultural background. …if music is regarded as human action, music sound can no longer be analyzed independently, but must be studied as sound in culture.^[52]

Blacking analyzes 56 songs chosen from 400 recordings, listening to several performances of every song in order to find a representative norm for each song. He strove to learn Venda music by learning to sing the children’s songs himself. While this procedure is perhaps desirable for a long-term study, one questions its possibility and desirability as a consistent field method. Blacking is critical of the common approach by ethnomusicologists of measuring and counting virtually everything measurable and countable.

It has been standard practice in ethnomusicology to analyze and compare musical styles by means of “weighted” scales, interval counts, and other techniques which assume that, for instance, types of pentatonic scale, rising fourths and falling sixths, have the same meaning whenever they are used. But as soon as we appreciate that most of these assumptions are not universally accepted, but apply chiefly to European culture, then it becomes necessary to revise our methods of ethnomusicological analysis.  The kind of analysis I have attempted for Venda children’s songs is the logical outgrowth of the view that music is human action in culture.^[53]

Nketia epitomizes the new breed of researcher, born and steeped in the traditions of Africa. He speaks of these traditions in a most authoritative way. Nketia writes extensively and analytically about his work and the application his methods have on all African music south of the Sahara. Of particular value is his Analytical Model which delineates a scholarly level of interest and which “seeks to provide both analysis and synthesis of the music material so that it can be more readily related to experience of this music in its social and cultural setting. In his model, he considers musical expressions on three distinct but mutually related levels: the levels of sound, structure, and context.”^[54]

1. Sound
   1. All the variety of vocal and instrumental sounds used in a given society or in a particular corpus of material being considered.
   2. Attributes of sounds including features of pitch, timbre, amplitude and duration.
   3. Study of tuning and scale systems and correlations between the phonetic features of speech and the sound attributes of vocal style.

2. Structure—distinguish between:
   1. Types of structures, e.g., linear structures and multi-linear structures in overlapping or interlocking relations.
   2. Units of structure which can be identified and the way in which they are combined, giving rise to different music forms.
   3. Categories of structure, in particular rhythm, and tonal structures which may be examined in relation to the types and units of structure.
   4. Elements of structure, the sound material re-examined in the context of structure, i.e., in terms of their relations in categories of structure. (It is on this level that correlations between metrical structure of song texts and tonal organizations are dealt with.)

3. Context: the third level of analysis is extremely important in African music and must go hand in hand with the analysis of sound and structure.
   1. Relates sounds, structure, song texts, musical items and musical types to the context of society or the general context of culture viewed synchronically or diachronically.
   2. It is on this level that we seek to understand the body of traditions in terms of which music is practiced and perpetuated.
   3. Here we look at the complex of values associated with the music and the cultural and historical dimensions which are needed for the understanding of these traditions and values.^[55]

Nketia is highly reliable, very readable, worthwhile, and in my opinion, in the forefront of African music research. “…traditional African music is essentially folk music organized and performed as part of the process of living together.”^[56]

Many other African authorities could be mentioned in regard to the topic of the socio-cultural implications of tribal music and ways of discovering it. But we conclude this section with a succinct comment by Bruno Nettl:

Music is a universal phenomenon, but each culture has its own, and learning to understand another culture’s music is in many ways like learning a foreign language. We must…assume that some of the essential and distinctive qualities of a culture somehow find their way into its music.

At the root of the concept of united nation and musical style is the idea that a nation’s folk music must somehow reflect the inner characteristics of that nation’s culture, the essential aspects of its emotional life—its very self.^[57]

4.2. Ethiopia and the Anuak Tribe

The books of Herskovits,^[58] Greenfield,^[59] and Doresse^[60] are extensively researched and well-documented, fine sources for political information and Ethiopian history, but in no case does one find mention of the music of the people. Doresse sets the stage and indicates part of the problem.

Any attempt to assess the basic characteristics of this motley assemblage—Ethiopia has been described as a “museum” of peoples, languages, and faiths—would necessitate an account not only of the peoples of Tigre and Amhara who inherited the Aksumite traditions, but of their kinsmen the Gurage also, and the Agwa, and more particularly the Galla, breeders of huge horned cattle, with their curious social structure based on age-groups, which still survives among certain tribes. One would need to describe the Moslems of the great walled city of Hara, the Somali groups, the “Adali,” and those of Danakil, who wear practically nothing and always seem to be vaguely on the move, pulling a camel behind them. Then there are the hirsute Assaorta tribes, and a host of others who in many cases are the descendants of the primitive inhabitants encountered by travelers of old along the coast of the Erythraean Sea.^[61]

Books by Pankhurst^[62] and Ullendorff^[63] present strong apologetics for the needs of the Emperor and the greatness of Ethiopia. Ullendorff draws distinctions between the true Ethiopian and the others.

The last sector of the population of Ethiopia, the Nilotic (Negroid) peoples, can be dealt with summarily, not so much on account of their comparative numerical insignificance, but because they form no integral part of the life and civilization of Ethiopia. These Nilotic races entered the country from the region of the Nile Valley and the Nile tributaries which lead to the foothills of the Abyssinian highlands and settled in the western parts of Ethiopia—generally not far from the Sudan. Their color is very dark, they are dolichocephalic and prognathous, and their hair is wooly. They appear to be attuned to the severe tropical climate of the western lowlands, from which all true Abyssinians recoil by ascending the cool and salubrious highlands.^[64]

It seems to be the dominant case with all published material that, when reference is made to cultural and more particularly musical expression, the emphasis is on that of the highland peoples with little or no mention made of the lowland tribes. Pankhurst briefly describes the music of the Ethiopian church, secular song, and provides some information on Ethiopian instruments, but presents no material on the Anuak. Mantle Hood was referring to a more specific or limited topic when he made this statement, and yet it applies to the music of the Anuak: “Careful note should be made not only of what is said and how accurately it seems to be said, but also, more especially, of what is not said or what appears to be left unsaid. These are the lacunae, the blank areas of the subject.”^[65]

Perham^[66] provides an excellent source on the government of Ethiopia and gives some insight into the relations with the tribes of Southwest Ethiopia. Hess^[67] speaks authoritatively and from firsthand knowledge in a carefully balanced presentation. His comments about the Amhara-Tigrean prejudice against Negroid peoples provides background about “that remote area of southwestern Ethiopia.”^[68] Levine’s highly controversial book, Wax and Gold, is very blunt in many of its criticisms of Ethiopian life and culture but often quite accurate. His comments about music, however, are limited to that of the Amhara and these are subjective and inaccurate.

The music is monodic, both melodically and rhythmically and except for some intricately structured accelerandos in certain religious hymns, consists chiefly in the indefinite repetition of a number of very limited musical ideas.^[69]

The only book completely devoted to the music of Ethiopia is Ethiopian Music by Michael Powne.^[70] In it, he provides a good background for his study including geography, definitions, history and ethnography. He describes various musical instruments, most of which were studied at the museum in Addis Ababa. His book also includes comments about secular songs, dances, and ecclesiastical music. Powne’s study is limited to the music of the highlands and one is disappointed that he did not delve more deeply into the music. He gives short shrift to any culture other than that of the Amhara: “…there are at least seventy languages and two hundred dialects in the country…but we could not rightly call the country a museum of cultures as well, most of the peoples having nothing that compares with the proper Ethiopian culture.”^[71]

Some references are made to the culture of the Anuak in the writings of Tucker and Seligman which date back to 1932. Tucker^[72] provides limited information about music in the southern Sudan. Seligman’s information is all from secondary sources. “We have no personal knowledge of the Anuak who are said to be shorter than the Shilluk, or sturdier build, with rather more muscular legs… etc.”^[73]

Evans-Pritchard has long been interested in the area but devotes most of his attention to the Nuer, a neighboring and very extensive Nilotic tribe.^[74] A recent study by Tippett explores the peoples of Southwest Ethiopia in a rather good anthropological study. Again, comment on the music is extremely limited and nonexpert.

…large wooden horns about three feet long are used for funeral dances, and the horn may also be blown when certain work projects have been completed. The sound of the horns could in no way be called music. They produce a rhythm but no tune. They are not for entertainment but for rejoicing.^[75]

Leinhardt^[76] graphically describes Agwaga style dancing among the Anuak. His description is accurate and interesting, but the focus of the book is on the village headman. This, however, is the only extended comment about Anuak music that was found.

4.3. Relevant Dissertations

As has been indicated, no studies have come to my attention that treat the subject of Ethiopian tribal music. Several studies exist, however, that describe various analytical procedures which are valuable in ethnomusicological studies.

Two landmark studies that deal with the collection, description and analysis of material are those by Thieme^[77] and Merriam.^[78] Thieme assumed the premise that, “our understanding of the role and function of music, the musician, and music instruments can make a further contribution to the study of the culture as a whole.”^[79]

The main body of the work consists of a formal descriptive catalogue, grouping specimens by organological category family and type, with illustrations, and indicating measurements and tunings. Information concerning the use of the instrument in contextual situations is given. Included also is information drawn from the field and other data concerning geographic distribution of the instruments and local variations in construction and usage. Playing techniques are described in the text and where possible illustrated.^[80]

Because I am attempting to present a broader approach in this study, such an extensive treatment of instrumental analysis will not be attempted. But Thieme’s study will be of value as an exemplary study in describing the instruments in a complete, logical and organized way.

Merriam presents a very complete description of analysis methods in his study of songs of the Afro-Bahian cults.^[81]  His sample included 98 songs, or roughly 16 percent, of the collection of 600 songs. His method of analysis was that which was being used at the Laboratory of Comparative Musicology at Northwestern University which, Merriam states, “Enables as objective a description of a musical style as possible.”^[82] Merriam treats only the actual music and is not concerned with socio-cultural applications. Among other areas, he examines:

1. Tonal range.
2. Melodic direction (based mainly upon the difference in semitones between the beginning and ending tones of the songs as well as other relationships…)
3. Intervals and interval patterns (this is arrived at by a quantitative survey of each song in which all intervals are noted both for presence and number of appearances.)^[83]

The above were analyzed collectively and yielded results of which the following are typical: “Tonal range is wide; melodic direction is generally downward; the major 2nd is utilized most frequently; almost 70% are based on pentatonic scale; all the songs seem to have a well-defined tonality; there are no modulations; etc. ….”^[84] It seems that these are very general conclusions for the apparent objectivity of the measurements.

Lazarus Ekwueme’s study dealing specifically with Ibo choral music has wide applicability to the rest of the African continent and provides an excellent format for analysis and summary.

Our approach is to look at several songs individually analyzing them and noting specific characteristics of their forms. When we have looked at a fair sample of various types of songs from a cross section of Ibo land, we shall attempt to draw such conclusions that may arise either deductively or inductively from our results.^[85]

Ekwueme uses a very graphic approach to the analysis of forms and emphasizes word content and its effect on melody. His treatment of rhythmic notation is logical and should provide clarity.

Because independent rhythms may vary with individual instruments or voices in the same piece, it is advisable not to draw bar lines through the staff, but rather across the spaces between the staves, so that rhythms within any instrument may be notated without resort to frequent use of tied notes or rests.^[86]

Though Ekwueme may overstate the melodic implications of a tonal language, this study provides much that is excellent in the way of procedure, organization and insight.

Mbabi-Katana presents a very convincing proposed music curriculum for the student in Uganda. This is based “on a genuine philosophy, embodying indigenous cultural idioms and diversity, and reflecting political, social and ethical values of the society of Uganda.”^[87] Mbabi describes African music.

…as chief receptacle of man’s cumulative behavior, folk music reveals multidimensional aspects of man’s life. From the statement of man’s movement in time, folk music manifests the past, present, and given direction to the future of man’s achievements. From the standpoint of man’s movement in space, folk music conveys a picture of man’s conquests, migrations and expansion in space. From the standpoint of man’s existence in society…folk music (plays a) predominant part…in the African social environment.^[88]

Though no analysis is made of these songs, except for word content and description of the occasion, Mbabi provides an African oriented and applicable teaching model.

Anderson explores the teaching of two non-western musics: Javanese and Indian in American elementary schools.  Anderson echoes the need stated at Tanglewood in 1967 to “expanding) school music programs to encompass a study of foreign music” and the report of Palisca at the Yale Conference: “Any program of music instruction in the schools that does not find a place for…studies in depth of some of these cultures and their music is turning its back on one of the most compelling realities of our time.”^[89]

One can applaud his findings, though the investigator might have been more effective if he had concentrated on the music of only one culture. “This investigator has shown that it is now both desirable and feasible to present foreign music in elementary schools in the United States.”^[90]

Based upon the above studies, it seems apparent that much research remains to be done regarding the study of the Anuak tribe. The present study applies the research techniques of Nettl, Nketia, Thieme, and Ekwueme where applicable and helpful in the musical and socio-cultural analysis of the Anuak people.