1.1   Introducing Globalization

Globalization is perhaps the most intensive and important phenomena of our time. It is frequently discussed by politicians, journalists, business leaders, and scholars, and the term is used world wide. So, what is globalization? Broadly speaking, globalization may be thought of as forces that connect people around the world in a network of relationships and interconnections. These forces include major world events, powerful global actors, worldwide economic movements, rapid international communication, and more. While most frequently thought of in terms of economics and trade relationships, globalization also includes the sharing, merging and morphing of cultures, ideas, and knowledge(s). Within our understanding of globalization we also acknowledge that a connected world is also an interdependent one: events that occur in one region of the world have consequences for other regions. Underlining this co-dependency is an imbalance of power and influence, where some regions of the world wield more influence than others, and, some regions are affected by global events to a greater degree than in others. At the same time, these relationships are evolving, continually changing patterns of power and influence across the globe.

Climate change, for example, is a global phenomenon that illustrates how connected and unequally situated are the various regions of the world.

There is international scientific consensus that climate change, caused by increased greenhouse gasses in the earth’s atmosphere has been accelerated by human activity, specifically the rapid industrialization of so-called developed countries. The growing concentration of these gasses are changing the earth’s atmosphere, causing climatic upheavals such as floods and famines such that this phenomena is seen as one of the most prescient and critical global environmental challenges of our time. The UN reports however, that “While climate change is a global phenomenon, its impact on countries and communities will be very different, with developing countries likely to be the most adversely affected because these countries do not have the resources to face the potentially devastating effects of climate change”. In effect, therefore, least industrialised countries (who have contributed the least to climate change) are the ones suffering the worst of its catastrophes. (ref: Dervis, Kemal: ‘Devastating For the World’s Poor.. UN Chronicle, United Nations Report).

1.2   Globalization: Generative or Destructive?

Globalization is seen as inevitable by many people; the result of advances in communication technology, the speed and efficiency of travel, the impetus of global economic growth, and the interaction of knowledge communities across the world. The speed and pervasiveness of globalization, however, has given rise to a range of community responses. Some embrace fast, transformative change, arguing that in a borderless world, where geographic and conceptual barriers don’t exist, the flow of ideas and people would stimulate exponential learning for the benefit of all. In this case globalization is seen as a positive force, a new era of open and connected social interaction, innovation and universal progress. To others, globalization is a negative uncontrolled force, bringing sweeping change too rapidly, disrupting ways of life and traditions. These groups see globalization as a destabilizing, risky force and want to stop the merging and integration of a borderless planet, arguing for more barriers between nations, people, cultures, and ideas. Most people fall somewhere along the spectrum between these extremes, arguing for managing the pace and consequences of globalization.

There are reasons for the polarization of responses to globalization and the degrees of contention around its negative or positive effects. In the last quarter century, the pace of change of globalization has grown exponentially. This has led to consequences that privilege some while victimizing others, of making life and prospects better for some people and worse for others. The historical process of globalization (examined later in more detail), set in motion the tools of liberal capitalism as the preferred methods of progress at the same time as the postwar push for modernization/development (also examined in greater detail later) was unfolding. Liberalism and free market principles led to the free flow of capital across the globe to a large extent, with nations opting to open their markets or close them down, and with capitalism becoming synonymous with First World modernization. These activities, and this narrative of globalization was accelerated by technological breakthroughs that enabled faster transport, production-distribution mobility, and communication across the globe. This also established the global desire for modernization and industrialization (once called Development), making industrialized countries the standard to be followed in all ideas of progress, and overriding (arguably) many nation’s endogenous methods of progress and change. We will examine these issues as one of our global perspectives on education in the following chapters in greater detail.

1.3   Globalization: definitions, conceptualizations and perspectives

It is difficult to pin down a single, precise definition of globalization because it has so many layers and dimensions. When you think of globalization, it is useful to think of it as a set of processes and forces that connect and affect people and their geo-social environments.It also involves an ongoing, continuous movement towards more interaction and interconnectedness. Definitions of globalization change depending on who is defining it and what epistemological positions they speak from.  One reading of globalization traces world-wide connections to the Industrial Revolution in Europe.  A very influential economist and philosopher, Adam Smith (‘The Wealth of Nations’, 1776) set the parameters for the free market (“free market” means the ability of the market to regulate itself and the quality of goods and services), signaling a shift away from old world mercantilism to production, distribution and innovation of trade between and among nations.   Scholars have studied globalization from many perspectives. The majority of this literature has taken an economic focus. This is not surprising, given the dominance of capitalism and Western civilization during the same period as the rise of global scholarship. This presents an incomplete picture of globalization. Capitalism requires constant growth and wealth production through the opening of new markets.  exploiting and extracting resources, and oiling the machinery of supply and demand. Trade, then, became a principal driver of international encounters: Christopher Columbus’ arrival in the Americas while searching for spices in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Africa, also in 1492, which allowed the Portuguese to obtain a monopoly on the spice trade in Africa. Current economic thought is that the global economy really came into existence when markets could take advantage of cheap labor and means of production on a global scale. For example, while clothing might be manufactured in the United States from raw resources to final product, in the current world raw materials might come from India, production might happen in China (cheap labor), and the final product might be sold in the United States. This forces nations to compete with each other at all levels of the production process. This, in a nutshell, is the economic view of globalization.

There are many schools of thought that find an economic-specific exploration of globalization to be incomplete. As we have seen globalization involves far more than just economics. It affects and is affected by social, cultural, technological, and environmental developments that should not be analyzed from an economic perspective alone. Economics is a part of globalization, but only a part. In its broadest sense, globalization was set in motion many millennia ago, through migration patterns of humans on the move in search of food and better living conditions for themselves. As groups came together and organized themselves, they interacted with other groups– sometimes peacefully, sometimes violently. They created cultural connections through trade and commerce and the exchange of knowledge, scientific discoveries, spiritual inquiry, etc. Internationalism/cosmopolitanism and globalization and are very similar concepts and are often used interchangeably. It is useful here to understand these terms in order to better conceptualize globalization

International? Global?

Internationalism is the development of unilateral or multilateral relationships between nation-states. Globalization, which is supra-national (above or more-than national), involves more than just a uni-dimensional interaction between countries and goes beyond solely national concerns . For example, treaties between countries for specific purposes such as trade, worker or student exchanges, and so on may be seen as purposeful international relationships that are sought after and agreed upon by institutions and governments.  Globalization goes beyond the security, trade, and diplomatic relations that typically define internationalism. A more unpredictable and unspecified, multidimensional process of relationships, it involves connections and interactions of ideas, and cultures, products and people, as well as the repercussions of these connections. Internationalism may indeed lead to globalization.  For example, economic globalization involves the transition from independent national economies to an interdependent global economy, accomplished mainly through free trade and capital mobility, but also through open borders and the unobstructed migration of people.

In this textbook, our focus is more on this supra-national, complex and multifaceted process of globalization.

While globalization as a concept has risen in public consciousness in recent decades, it has always existed. You might think of it as the consequence of events and processes that bring the world together in relationships that are both benign and contentious. Think of what might have happened when two different groups of early humans came across one another. There might have been conflict, where one group wanted the other’s territory; there might have been trade established between the two groups; there might have been an exchange of ideas that benefited both. Most likely all of these things happened. This meeting of two groups might be thought of as a catalyst event. Such events have ripple effects that spread over time and distance. While there might be immediate consequences (such as trade routes developing), other consequences might not become apparent for years or even generations. The effects of globalization have been and continue to be felt, by everyone.

As the world becomes even more connected, the speed of change becomes rapid and unpredictable. This leads to new combinations and concepts of ideas, races, ethnicities, and cultures. Even conceptions of the individual are rendered more complex by gender, sexual, ethnic, and racial considerations. There is a growing trend towards the recognition of and tolerance for diversity. International organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank were founded in order to address human rights and solve global issues. But now, interest is developing in the idea of a world civil society and world citizenship. International law is evolving to address global justice issues beyond national boundaries. However, tension also develops because of unpredictable change, fear of the loss of cultural cohesion, certainty, and traditional platforms of power.

Roland Robertson, who has been credited with the first most cohesive definition of globalization, suggests thinking about it in terms of a world that is increasingly compressed. In his 1992 work, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture, Robertson is interested in the process by which we reach global consciousness.  He defines globalization as “the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole” (Robertson, 1992).  In other words, there is a growing intensification of awareness not just that we exist in an interconnected world, but also that we are aware of our co-dependencies with other nations, other species and global change beyond our immediate localities.  Robertson is building on some of the ideas first introduced by mass media theorist Marshall McLuhan in his book, Understanding Media (1960). McLuhan discusses the creation of a global village with the world shrunk by modern advances in communications. In 1960, this meant television, radio, newspapers, etc. McLuhan likens these communication systems to an extended central nervous system that links us collectively.

With the development of the internet, a new reality of connectedness has changed the way people around the world interact with one another. New realities through connections may also signal an emergent global consciousness which, in our historical moment may be conceptualized, among other attributes, as

• the ability to understand the complexities and patterns of connections between local, global, international and cross cultural events, systems, institutions, movements and actions.
• A curiosity and willingness to explore the new and unfamiliar and to learn from it; acknowledging the diversity of socio-economic and political power issues in communities and how they play out on a global stage, and finally,
• Ethical awareness and a growing (if changing) social responsibility towards people and communities beyond one’s own; as well as a growing consciousness of social justice issues that extend to the non-human, to concerns for a sustainable planet, and the ability to approach global issues with this consciousness.    (ref: Marcelo Suarez-Orozco. (2007) Learning in the Global Era: International perspectives on globalization and education. To be added in refs/biblio  )

Globalization is about connection, sometimes negative, sometimes positive, often both. Any encounter leads to disruption and change, whether for better consequences or worse. In order to understand this further, let’s examine some of the driving forces that have brought us to our current phase of globalization.  Remember that Robertson describes this as the uncertainty phrase.

1.3 (a)  Globalization as social progression

The term globalization came into wide academic use after 1990 with the symbolic and physical fall of the Berlin Wall and consequent changes to the global world order. Political, economic, cultural, and technological changes have fueled the discussion amongst scholars about the rise of an interconnected, interdependent world. But globalization as a concept existed long before the term was coined. Roland Robertson (Robertson, R 1992. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture.  Sage Pub UK) theorizes globalization as a movement of society through certain phases. While this is an incomplete conceptualization, and is largely a eurocentric one, it is helpful for building our understanding of globalization.

The germinal phase (15th-16th centuries) features the increased role of the Catholic Church across borders, the movement from medieval systems of governance to the beginning of the concept of nations, and the cultural questioning of the concept of humanity. The adoption of the Gregorian calendar throughout Europe is the beginning of a ‘global’ concept of time.

The incipient phase (17th-19th centuries) includes the ascendance of nation-states and the development of formal international relationships. We see the rise of diplomacy and an infrastructure to support it. Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution and consequent industrialization causes a fundamental reworking of production and distribution methods.

The take-off phase (late 19th-mid-20th century) is the acceleration period where globalization processes are intensified. Nation-states have assumed primacy and jostle for power on the global stage. Engagement between nations takes many forms. Among these are a benign competition for national recognition demonstrated by such things as the Olympic Games and the Nobel Prize, and international conflict, as demonstrated by two world wars and the Cold War. We see the rise of concern for the global impact of events, such as genocide and the development of the atomic bomb.

The uncertainty phase is the present condition of globalization, featuring the rise of faster human connections made possible through technology. It is marked by the realization of the increasing fragility of all of humanity due to environmental degradation, climate change, depletion of natural resources, population explosions, unpredictable and uneven development, religious and civil conflict, and more. This realization has raised the awareness of a shared responsibility for the well-being and sustainability of the world.

1.3 (B) Globalization as process

Certain world events mobilized and gave impetus to the process of globalization. These events globalization processes unite the globe through the degree of their influences on the world stage:

Colonialism

Colonization refers to the spread of foreign populations across native territories.  In other words, alien or foreign insertions into a cohesive, native system may take root and grow, sometimes taking over or replacing the native population. For example, the emerald ash borer arrived in the United States from eastern Asia and is destroying ash forests. Colonialism is a theory that explores the practice by which a foreign entity (or country) seeks to exert influence and control over a native population. The driving impetus for colonization is economic. The practice and the policies that come from it are designed to exploit native resources for the enrichment of the colonial or imperial power.

Colonialism, as we understand it in its social and historical sense, is the spread of western european people, systems, thought, manners, and social organization over many regions of the globe.  There have been non-western colonizers too and space is opening up in which to have informed discussions about those. However, the current global discourse has largely been shaped by the effects of eurpoean colonization across the world and remains the centre of our study.

The global connections formed by colonialism were underscored by relationships of unequal power and control, and purposeful establishment of imperial supremacy over native populations. This relationship also created the conditions that made it possible for ideas of the Renaissance in Europe to spread around the world.  In the same way, the industrial revolution brought new technologies to various parts of the globe, fundamentally changing the means of production of material and goods; as well as the patterns of life and work for most communities.  Therefore,  the concurrent effects of this relationship was to cement a dominance of exploitative power and control as well as the sharing of knowledge, culture and technologies.  Arguably, this process still exists, albeit as a morphed form, called neo-colonialism.  Neo-colonialism is the continuation of the colonial enterprise of exerting control or influence for the sake of gaining and consolidating (and maintaining) wealth and power.  Neo-clonialism is the practice of developed or rich countries exerting control over poorer or underdeveloped countries in patterns of dominating political or economic power.  Colonizing entities now may take the shape of multinational companies, banks or other governmental (as well as governmental) groups who use economic, political or social pressures to exert their power and influence. Not all global entities are neo-colonial powers, it needs to be remembered, just those who have the specific mandate of self-enrichment through the exertion of power. Later in this book we will explore the concept and workings of power more extensively, generally and in particular case studies.

The Great Wars and their consequences:

Among the drivers of globalization is the era of the two great wars that engaged and affected almost the entire globe. World war I and II had a profound effect on connecting communities across the globe as well as changing a world order that existed until the disruption caused by the major wars.  After each of the world wars, there were changes in the fabric of social life, a derangement and dissipation of communities, the use of science and information to advocate for ways of organizing societies and wealth (socialism/capitalism etc).  Wide-spread and catastrophic loss of life and property led also to the need to rebuild and reconstruct economies.  Perhaps most importantly, the recognition of the world as an interconnected, interdependent world became clearer, as conversations about rebuilding economies, reparations and support for the war-afflicted, disease-ridden and poverty stricken regions of the world became supra-national. The globe seen as ‘First World’ and ‘Third World’ came to be coined in this era, as were ideas of ‘development’ (ushering the Third World into modernization) and progress for the betterment of all humanity.

Global institutions:

The postwar era saw the sudden rise of influential global organizations.  Not only did the wars produce winners and losers politically, it also rendered some countries rich, while some remained or became poorer.  Philanthropy became institutionalized as well as agencies that worked specifically towards stronger trade ties, peace and justice, social reform, as well as open-markets.  This period saw the sudden and powerful rise of such institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the United Nations and its many branches (such as UNESCO which deal with social and educational matters globally).  We also see the rise of transnational and multinational companies and their growing influence.  The discourse on education, social progress and justice in the rebuilding of nations is now intertwined with economics, minority rights, global politics and nationalism, as individuals and communities struggle to be heard and valued on the global stage.

Global Innovations in information and communication technologies

The internet and attendant communication platforms have perhaps been and still are, the fastest way to send information, news and opinions around the world, now at record speeds.  Governments may try to restrict access to information; however, by and large, having a robust information infrastructure is seen to be a key factor in a nation’s ability to participate in the global economy.  The world is now connected through social media, email, elearning, electronic  ‘Apps’ (applications) that have connected people and their ability to communicate across time and geographical space in an unprecedented network of relationships. This cyber connection is on-going, a process that is continuing and extremely powerful as a globalizing force.

1.3 (C) Globalization as ‘Scapes’

In contrast with Adam Smith and others, cultural theorist Arjun Appadurai (1990) turns aways from the construct of the globalized world as binary poles (of rice/poor/Global North/South) that are separate, but as flows of influence that move between and within what he calls culture ‘scapes’.  According to Appadurai, globalization can be conceptualized as five broad spaces that interact, overlap and influence each other:

1. MediaScapes: Global media platforms, as well as the internet construct this space, where news and information, as well as opinions and ‘fake’ information have come a long way from radio and television. These platforms are quickly changing and adapting to ‘demand’ of how news is conveyed and in fact, what is conveyed as long as there is an audience and consumer for it. Scholars of globalization think of ours as the Information Age, in process since the late 20th century, and characterized by an insatiable drive for information. Digital media and entertainment constitutes most time at work, learning and leisure across the globe.
2. Technoscapes: Technology connections cross borders easily and form communities in cyberspace that are as vibrant, active and flexible as any other population.  We see evidence of a global economy here as well, with the ubiquity of Japanese and Chinese hardware, software designed in India for the world, and US companies like Apple forming a customized global market.
3. Financescapes: The movement of financial devices and platforms is also unprecedented. Cashless economies, the global nature of Visa and Mastercard, the connections made by banks and other financial institutions worldwide, ATM machines and other co-operative measures that remove the barriers to transferring finance across the globe, constitutes this ‘scape’.
4. Ethnoscapes: While there are communities that stay in one place for many generations, more than ever before, we see communities of people (migrants, refugees, tourists, scholars) move between cities, nations, and cultures.  These populations, as groups and individuals, appear to influence politics and socio-cultural, blending and changing these relationships through their mobility.
5. Ideoscapes: ideas, symbols and narratives that sweep the world, are powerful and global in their influence.  These ideas seize the imagination and lead to action, policy changes and shift global discourse.  The Enlightenment is one such powerful ideoscape,  as is democracy.

It is important to remember that these spaces of thought and engagement overlap and intersect. The so-called ‘4th Industrial Revolution’ is another idea that is gaining ground.  The 4IR is the idea that our technologies, media, the internet of everything etc., is changing the way we live our lives.  It is, however, also seen as the next step for nations to become global players by investing in technological know-how, infrastructure and training.  Another illustrative example is the Arab Spring, which in the end did not sustain but shows how these global culture flows occupied several ‘scapes’ and led to revolutionary action.

1.4   Glocalization: Global Meets Local (an infographic)

Glocalization is a term that combines ‘globalization’ and ‘local’ to indicate the hybrid nature of products that are distributed globally but have taken on specific local aspects in order to make them contextually sensitive. The global idea or design has been adapted to have both global and local attributes. This infographic is an example.

1.5   Chapter Summary

In order to understand the complexity and pervasiveness of globalization, it is useful to have a general starting point of ideas, general meanings and notions that we can use to build up fundamental understandings of a phenomena that can be studied largely through the patterns of change it generates. In this way, one can begin to conceptualize this difficult, process-driven and constantly changing idea. It is important to resist thinking of globalization as a static state or a product, an end point, result or goal; but rather as movement. If we accept that globalization is the continuous process of bringing people, communities and ideas closer together, then we also understand that conceptualizing globalization may require a relearning and reexamination of the changes it brings.

1.6   For Review

1. What does globalization mean to you? (reflection)
2. Find illustrations of people or communities who have benefited from globalization and those who have not, explain why.
3. How can globalization be both a positive force for change as well as a negative one?
4. Why is Internationalism different from Globalism? How are they connected?
5. Find examples of Appadurai’s global cultural flows. How do they intersect?
6. Make a list of International/global institutions. What functions do they execute? Discuss their missions and mandates as instances of global consciousness.
7. How do you think learning has changed with access to the internet?

References

McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media : the Extensions of Man. [1st ed.]. ed., McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Robertson, Roland. Globalization : Social Theory and Global Culture. Sage, 1992.